A primer on conduicting

1. FIELD
BOOK 2010
discovery + design

2. WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY
In a nutshell, anthropology is the study of all that it means to be WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?
human and the cultural context within which we live. In essence, Both a methodology and a product of research, ethnography is
anthropology answers the question: a grounded, inductive method, that heavily relies on participant-
observation. These days, the term “ethnography” is used fairly loosely
“What does it mean to be human?" and expectations and final outcomes vary as much as the people
calling themselves ethnographers.
It's the scientific study of humankind; from species origins through
development to modern day (including the mall, boardrooms, • It meets people where the action occurs
and offices). • It is inductive
• It does not go into the field with answers running
Anthropology encompasses a holistic view of a person and • It is focused on systems, practices, and beliefs
their environment by blending sociology, linguistics, biology • Everything is data
and psychology into a more complete picture. As with all social • It is focused for business objectives
sciences, it embraces an inductive approach to understanding • It is best done in teams
and starts from a cultural perspective. • It uses culture and shared knowledge as the center of investigation
Anthropology is also “comparative” and “cross-cultural”.
It is a comparative field in that it examines all societies, ancient and
modern; simple and complex. It systematically compares data from
different populations and time periods. However, the other social
sciences tend to focus on a single society whereas anthropology
offers a unique cross-cultural perspective by constantly comparing
the customs of one society with those of others.
ANTHROPOLOGY & CULTURE
Everything begins with culture.
Culture is a set of shared, learned beliefs, values, norms, traditions
and taboos.
Every purchase decision is made within the cultural context:
• Geographic culture (Indian, American, NorCal, Silicon Valley)
• Industry culture (engineers, product managers, nurses, taxi drivers)
• Company culture (Microsoft, Yahoo, P&G, Harley Davidson)
• Lifestyle culture (surfer, emo, techie, biker, neat-freak)
• Religious culture (Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, Atheist)

3. INDUCTIVE METHODS INDUCTIVE METHODS
THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH
• Begins with specific things - observations or discussion with informants.
Based on the accumulation of observation, you may want to build a THEORY
general idea on that observation.
• Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories.
• Start with specific observations and measures, begin to detect INITIAL HYPOTHESIS
patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that
we can explore and finally develop conclusions or theories.
• Inductive reasoning is more open-ended, holistic and exploratory,
especially at the beginning.
• Uncover the unexpected activities, intrusions, and interactions that
ultimately impact decision making, use and performance.
• Attempts to understand why, not simply what.
• Attempts to understand the contexts (processes) in which people live PATTERNS
and work.
OBSERVATION

4. RESOURCE FLOW
The study of the complex issues around how resources are attained,
used, repurposed and disposed of within a household or community
is called resource flow. In essence, it is a process by which people or
companies catalog the purchase journey.
Statistically, humans are alone only a small percentage of their lives.
We exist in family units, social webs, neighborhoods, work structures
and other organizations. All resource input (salary, crops, material
goods, other captial) will inevitably be filtered directly or indirectly
by multiple individuals, including pets. This is true even for those who
live alone, except in extreme cases. For ethnography in a business
context, you should rarely concept resource flow in a 1:1 ratio.
• A good way to start is to ask an individual in the group to draw
representations of those things in the home, office or community
that bring in money or goods.
• Next, have them do the same - but focus on those things that take
out money or goods.
• There will be debate about these representations from other
members of the group (in public and in private).
• The goal is to get people talking about how the process works and
the factors influencing it.
• Make sure to document observations and diagram the resource
flow.
• Try to keep any and all participants actively engaged through
discussion and cooperative diagraming. It's okay to hand your
informant your pen and paper.

5. SOCIAL NETWORKS SOCIAL NETWORKS
When conducting fieldwork, it is imperative that you document, The old adage "no man is an island" and "nobody lives in a
diagram and explore a subject or group's social web. This knowledge vacuum" are true. We live in a complex network of relationships and
will help you discover motivating or influential factors; negotiated communities that shape our worldview, behavior and influence our
self-images, relationships, resource flow and the foundation for daily behavior.
structural/functional behavior.
A social network is the socio-cultural group made up of individuals
or institutions called "nodes." These are connected by one or more
specific types of interdependency, such as profession, title, kinship,
common interest, dislike, etc. They can also be constructed around
relationships of beliefs, knowledge or power. Social webs help illustrate
the multivariate roles people play across a range of socio-cultural
strata.
Simply put, knowing a target's social network is the gateway to
ethnographic insight. Remember, in a social network:
• Subjects and their actions are viewed as interdependent rather than
independent or autonomous units
• Relational ties (linkages) between subjects are channels for resource
flow (either material or nonmaterial)
• Network models focusing on individuals view the network structural
environment as providing opportunities for or constraints on individual
action
• Network models conceptualize structure (social, economic, political
and so forth) as lasting patterns of relations among subjects

6. RECIPROCITY
Reciprocity is how we define the informal exchange of goods, labor
and even ideas. Since virtually all humans live in some kind of society
and interact with others, reciprocity is fundamental to the nature of all
cultures.
Knowing and diagraming reciprocity allows the researcher to explore
the transfer of resources (resource flow) and the give-and-take of links
in a social network. There are three types of reciprocity:
• Generalized reciprocity: The same as virtually uninhibited sharing
or giving. It occurs when one person shares goods or labor with
another person without expecting anything in return. What makes
this interaction "reciprocal" is the sense of satisfaction the giver feels
and the social closeness that the gift fosters. Between people who
engage in generalized reciprocity, there is a maximum amount of
trust and a minimum amount of social distance.
• Balanced or Symmetrical reciprocity: Occurs when someone gives
to someone else, expecting a fair and tangible return at some
undefined future date. It is a very informal system of exchange. The
expectation that the giver will be repaid is based on trust and social
consequences; that is, a "mooch" who accepts gifts and favors
without ever giving himself will find it harder and harder to obtain
those favors. Balanced reciprocity involves a moderate amount of
trust and social distance.
• Negative reciprocity: Includes what economists call barter. A person
gives goods or labor and expects to be repaid immediately with
some other goods or labor of the same value. Negative reciprocity
can involve a minimum amount of trust and a maximum social
distance - it can take place among strangers.

7. GENDER, CLASS & POWER
Gender, Class and Power can’t be overlooked when doing fieldwork.
While these are often topics we avoid in our society, they are part of
the cultural landscape and have to be considered when capturing
data.
Power can vary from hegemony, perceived as legitimate, to the threat
of violence. Class is the relation to the means of production, especially
the right of direct access to the fruits of production. Gender is best
understood as the relations between men and women. The three
together constitute the fundamental social, economic, cultural and
political relations that determine any social system or network.
When taking in a setting and taking notes consider the following:
• What roles do men and women play in the context?
• How are communities divided along economic lines?
• How important are racial and ethnic distinctions for the group and
how is this expressed?
• How is power exercised within the group?
• How do these considerations shape both the research plan and the
final design of a product, service or message?

8. DOCUMENTATION
Capturing everything in the field can be a daunting task. But there are
EXPRESSION ATTENTION some basic tips that will help make the process smoother:
• Write notes as soon as possible to avoid information being lost.
• Capture major themes and broad ideas within 24 hours and share
them with your team.
• Write down all personal details about the setting (number of people,
POSTURE HANDS location, use of space, gender dynamics, product use, etc.).
• Note direct quotes as well as your impressions.
• Note moments that produced changes in the context of discussion.
- A change in story setting, topic or temporal shift.
• Note moments that produced emotional responses.
FEET OTHER
• Note or draw expressions, body language, and non-verbal
communication.
Remember, the camcorder is only one of the tools you bring to the
field. Field guides, notebooks, sketchpads and cameras are all part of
the toolkit, but more importantly, so are you.

9. THE ART OF THE INTERVIEW
WHY THE INTERVIEW? NON-VERBAL PROMPTS
The interview is where you will receive a large percentage of your What you do and how you interact with your subject(s) is just as
information on subjects or groups. The ability to conduct a successful important as what you say. Body-language and signage by your
and insightful interview will determine the depth of information you will subject(s) is also important. Make sure to pay attention to the detials
be able to collect and the and the validity of that information. even if you're making notes. Remember:
KEEP IN MIND: • Remove coat (coats and objects are interpreted as barriers).
• Reading off a line of questions will create a barrier between the • Mind that your notes or camera are not directly between you and
researcher and the subject as well as produce a stale wooden the subject.
rapport.
• Maneuver subject(s) into a seated position not facing an immediate
• Ask open-ended questions rather than simple yes/no queries. Don’t point of egress.
lead the subject.
• The subject should feel secure, but not enclosed.
• Questions should be clear and phrased in contextually intelligible and
appropriate language. • Be aware of your body language and inflection.
• It’s an interview, not an interrogation. Establish a rapport. • Be observant of the body language, gesture-calls, posture, eye
movement etc. of the subject(s).
• Get to know the subject(s). Ask them questions about the house,
family, life, etc. It’s important for them to trust the relationship and to • Silence is your friend.
be open.
• Nodding but not saying anything will produce silence, which
•Add depth with follow-up questions. the subject will often try to fill by continuing deeper into a line of
explanation or discovery.
• Have the subject actively demonstrate their points if possible.
- “My truck makes a sound.” = Get in the truck and check it out

10. THE ART OF THE INTERVIEW
QUESTION CATEGORIES PROBE DEEPER
Self-Philosophy - How do they treat the brand/product? Is it a commodity? Is it used to
- Ask the applicant about how they feel or think about a particular satisfy the subject or is it being purchased for someone else?
topic/product.
- Examine how a change of perspective could or would change the - Are there any inherent biases? Are these linked to socio-economic
direction of future actions. status, ethnicity, religion, region, sex, age or gender?
Leading - How does the category play into daily life or social sphere?
- Asks general questions that motivate the subject to elaborate more
on the current line of questioning or on a specific topic. - What emotions or feelings are directly associated with the specific
brand/product?
Cultural Framework
- Ask questions about how the applicant believes other people in his/
her situation would feel.
Context
- Asksabout past situations involving the topic of conversation, and
GENERAL INTERVIEW OUTLINE
asking how the situation occurred.
- Describe setting/location.
Establish rapport
- Log time/date
Mapping
Transition to a broad category-oriented line of questioning
- Diagram - mentally or on paper - how people, places or things
regarding the topic are connected
Transition to brand/product specific line of questioning
Focus conversation
Thank subject(s) and distribute incentive

11. THINGS TO LOOK FOR
NORMS MEANING
Cultural norms guide good marketing, design, and development. People have to make sense of the world around them and assign
For example, cultures shape how people understand what is “food.” meaning to their shared lives.
While it is seen as strange to eat bugs in the West, they are a major
source of protein in many parts of the world. Rituals, morality, cosmology, even how we choose to clean our teeth
are all endowed with meaning. For example, knowing that you wear
Uncovering how people internalize these cultural norms gives us insight black to a funeral stems from associations we have between that color
into what “makes sense” and allows us to design brands that will and death.
resonate rather than confuse or offend.
• How do people define cleanliness?
• What do people wear in a given context? • How do people pray?
• How do people greet each other when meeting for the first time?
Ethnography uncovers not only the meaning people assign to the
PROCESSES world, but how that meaning comes about.
How people get things done is another significant point of investigation WHAT PEOPLE SAY vs. WHAT PEOPLE DO
for an ethnographer. It shows us how cultural roles, beliefs about what
is correct, and the order in which events take place shape interaction
It isn’t enough to ask people questions, because what they say and
with place, and tool or a brand.
what they do aren’t always the same.
• What rituals accompany preparing dinner?
Look for what is going on in the physical space, look for body
• How do people find their way in a retail environment?
language, and look for interactions between people.
Note all the steps in any activity described by the subject(s).
• People may call themselves “green,” but what do they drive?
• Do people have a “tell” when asked a question?
Look for contradictions and make sure to ask people to demonstrate
what they say.

12. THINGS TO LOOK FOR
HOW PEOPLE SOLVE PROBLEMS ROLES PEOPLE ASSUME
Look for ways people adapt things to solve problems in unusual How does behavior change in a given context? What sort of things are
ways. For example, using stickers on cell phones to “tag” what socially unacceptable in a given context? You should look for changes
belongs to them. and roles people seem to adopt in a given setting. Systems of hierarchy
and power are typically a visually obvious example.
• Look for the tools people use to accomplish tasks. • How do people react when they have to leave something behind?
• Look for work-arounds people develop to manage and control • How do people take turns when talking?
their environment. • How does body language change between people?
HOW PEOPLE ORGANIZE Try to uncover the social and cultural roles people are playing.
How people organize things can tell you a lot about how they
understand and manage their world. Ask people to explain how PEOPLE'S "STUFF"
they conceptualize things and how they relate to each other.
What kinds of “stuff” people have with them can signal what it is they
• How do people organize their refrigerator? see as important.
• Where do people store their "important" papers? • What do people carry with them?
• What do they wear?
• How does the setting change this?

13. ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS
HOUSE KEEPING INTERVIEW
• Get permission before you start filming, sketching or taking pictures. • Remember that you are talking, not interrogating. Listen long
• Make sure your equipment is working properly. enough to put your participant at ease and feel like he/she is
• If working in teams, assign roles and determine expectations for being heard.
each team member. • Be focused enough to get useful information, but general enough
• Determine who you want to talk to and why you want to talk with that the participant can guide the conversation into unexpected
them. areas.
• Ask open-ended questions, do not use a script, and be willing to
CAPTURING DATA ask naïve or obvious questions.
• The key is remembering that the participant is the expert, not you.
• While it sounds daunting, try to capture everything you see, hear,
smell, taste and feel.
• Use video, photos, notes, maps and sketches. Include details about
family, friends, food and environment.
• Include details about emotional responses as well as your own
feelings (uncovering personal biases will help improve analysis in the
long run).
• Be sure to get your thoughts recorded as soon as possible after
leaving the field.
OBSERVATION
• Observe reality, not just what people want to show you.
• While observing, look for adaptations and inventions, body
language, events that change behavior, social hierarchies, things
people care about, anything you see as irrational or surprising.
• Engage in what you are observing. It is through action that many of
the best questions and observation occur.

14. WHAT NOW?
Setting Objectives Domains, Variables and Factors
Fieldwork always produces vast amounts of interesting data. It's what The next step is to start to articulate the broad topics (domains),
you do with that data that makes a difference. variables within domains and specific factors that create variables.
It is a little like molecular biology. Atoms combine to make molecules,
The first step after leaving the field is to set objectives and end results for molecules combine to make compounds.
the insights.
Uncovering insights and making sense of behavior is similar to
This means defining: uncovering layers and linkages that build to form an organism.
• Budgets Things to Consider Before You Dive In
• Time frames
• Innovation vs. improvements Where and how will your idea be used by the consumer?
• Back and front end needs • Are they an adult? A nine-year old? A soldier?
Cultural Practices Understanding the context of use and users should direct where the
product will be used.
Above the waterline, • Is it in the car? On a laptop? In the backyard? In a retail
Aspects of culture that are explicit, visible, taught. environment?
At the waterline What functions your product must fulfill?
The area where implicit understandings become talked about,
explained. Culturally
Is it about your product or something bigger?
Below the waterline Design for how people live, not what they tell you.
“Hidden" culture: the habits, assumptions, understandings, values,
judgments. The things we know but do not or cannot articulate. Technically
- “Irrational” behavior is perfectly rational to the person doing it. What are the elements of that task in a real life setting?
What are people doing now to make do?

15. WHAT NOW?
What are the barriers? • Facilitator assists groups in refining 3 ideas to solve the problem.
• Define cultural barriers. • Groups will evaluate ideas and develop rough prototypes of ideas.
• Define cost barriers.
• Define platform barriers. • Tools: Pluses, Potentials, Concerns and Overcoming.
• Define biological barriers.
• Who, What, When, Why, How – focus on what it will take to implement.
All of this comes down to understanding the context and cultural
process of the user, shopper or consumer.
What Now: Nuts and Bolts
Now that you have categorized data, brainstorm as many possible
insights as possible.
• Select the 5 key insights and write on post-its.
- Post on easel, whiteboard or wall.
- Cluster insights into similar categories.
- Vote down to 5-7 key insights on which to focus.
• Break into “action groups.”
• Groups will generate long list of potential solutions.
• Brainstorming Tools: Write It, Say It, Post It; Brain Writing; Forced
Connections
• Evaluate and converge on 3 ideas.
• Decision Tools: Cluster; Dot Voting/Silent Vote