Biointensive Integrated Pest Management

BIOINTENSIVE
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
(IPM)
FUNDAMENTALS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information center funded by the USDA’s Rural Business--Cooperative Service.
Abstract: This publication provides the rationale for biointensive Integrated
Pest Management (IPM), outlines the concepts and tools of biointensive IPM,
and suggests steps and provides informational resources for implementing IPM.
It is targeted to individuals interested in agriculture at all levels.

By Rex Dufour
NCAT Agriculture Specialist
July 2001

Contents
“Conventional” and “Biointensive” IPM ......................................................................................................... 2
Why Move to Biointensive IPM? ....................................................................................................................... 4
Components of Biointensive IPM ...................................................................................................................... 5
How to Get Started ......................................................................................................................................... 5
The Pest Manager/Ecosystem Manager ..................................................................................................... 5
Proactive Strategies (Cultural Controls) ...................................................................................................... 6
Biological Controls ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Mechanical and Physical Controls ............................................................................................................. 12
Pest Identification ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Monitoring ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
Economic Injury & Action Levels ............................................................................................................... 14
Special Considerations ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Cosmetic Damage and Aesthetics .............................................................................................................. 14
Record-keeping ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Chemical Controls ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Integrated Weed Management Systems ......................................................................................................... 17
Current Status of IPM ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Crops with Developed IPM Programs ...................................................................................................... 19
Government Policy ....................................................................................................................................... 19
The Future of IPM .............................................................................................................................................. 20
Food Quality Protection Act ........................................................................................................................ 20
New Options ................................................................................................................................................. 20
More Weed IPM ............................................................................................................................................ 20
On-farm Resources ............................................................................................................................................ 21
IPM On-line ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
IPM Certification and Marketing .................................................................................................................... 21
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................. 22
References ........................................................................................................................................................... 23
Appendices:
A: IPM Planning Considerations ................................................................................................................ 25
B: Microbial Pesticides ................................................................................................................................ 27
C: Microbial Pesticide Manufacturers and Suppliers ............................................................................. 34
D: Conservation Security Act 2000 ............................................................................................................ 37
E: Pest Management Practices in Major Crops ........................................................................................ 38
F: IPM Information Resources ................................................................................................................... 39

ATTRA is a project of the National Center for Appropriate Technology

“Conventional” and “Biointensive” IPM ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Pest management is an ecological matter. The A conception of a managed resource, such
size of a pest population and the damage it as a cropping system on a farm, as a
inflicts is, to a great extent, a reflection of the component of a functioning ecosystem.
design and management of a particular agricul- Actions are taken to restore and enhance
tural ecosystem. natural balances in the system, not to
eliminate species. Regular monitoring
We humans compete with other organisms for makes it possible to evaluate the popula-
food and fiber from our crops. We wish to tions of pest and beneficial organisms. The
secure a maximum amount of the food re- producer can then take steps to enhance
source from a given area with minimum input natural controls (or at least avoid or limit
of resources and energy. However, if the the disruption of natural controls) of the
agricultural system design and/or manage- target pest(s).
ment is faulty—making it easy for pests to
develop and expand their populations or, An understanding that the presence of a
conversely, making it difficult for predators pest does not necessarily constitute a
and parasites of pests to exist—then we will be problem. Before a potentially disruptive
expending unnecessary resources for pest control method is employed, appropriate
management. Therefore, the first step in sus- decision-making criteria are used to deter-
tainable and effective pest management is mine whether or not pest management
looking at the design of the agricultural ecosys- actions are needed.
tem and considering what ecological concepts
can be applied to the design and management A consideration of all possible pest manage-
of the system to better manage pests and their ment options before action is taken.
parasites and predators.
A philosophy that IPM strategies integrate
The design and management of our agricul- a combination of all suitable techniques in
tural systems need re-examining. We’ve come as compatible a manner as possible; it is
to accept routine use of biological poisons in important that one technique not conflict
our food systems as normal. But routine use of with another (1).
synthetic chemicals represents significant
energy inputs into the agricultural system, and However, IPM has strayed from its ecological
carries both obvious and hidden costs to the roots. Critics of what might be termed “con-
farmer and society. Attempting to implement ventional” IPM note that it has been imple-
an ecology-based discipline like IPM in large mented as Integrated Pesticide Management
monocultures, which substitute chemical (or even Improved Pesticide Marketing) with
inputs for ecological design, can be an exercise an emphasis on using pesticides as a tool of
in futility and inefficiency. first resort. What has been missing from this
approach, which is essentially reactive, is an
IPM, as it was originally conceived, proposed understanding of the ecological basis of pest
to manage pests though an understanding of infestations (see first bullet above). Also
their interactions with other organisms and the missing from the conventional approach are
environment. Most of the 77 definitions for guidelines for ecology-based manipulations of the
IPM listed in The Database of IPM Resources farm agroecosystem that address the questions:
(DIR) website, <http://www.ipmnet.org/
DIR/>, despite some differences in emphasis, Why is the pest there?
agree with this idea and have the following How did it arrive?
elements in common: Why doesn’t the parasite/predator
complex control the pest?

//Biointensive Integrated Pest Management Page 2

reactive Chemical Controls
Applied Biologicals

Mechanical &
Physical Conrols

Monitoring & ID of Pests Monitoring & ID of Pests
& Beneficials

//Biointensive Integrated Pest Management
Sanitation, Planting Dates, & Crop Rotation

Aboveground Crop Genetic Diversity
Beneficial Habitat & Cultivars Appropriate
& Healthy Soil to Ecosystem & Pest
Pressures
proactive

Biointensive IPM Conventional IPM

Page 3

Why Move to Biointensive IPM? ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Biointensive IPM incorporates ecological and dominated by farms. Although some pending
economic factors into agricultural system design legislation has recognized the costs to farmers
and decision making, and addresses public of providing these ecological services (see
concerns about environmental quality and food Appendix D), it’s clear that farmers and
safety. The benefits of implementing ranchers will be required to manage their land
biointensive IPM can include reduced chemical with greater attention to direct and indirect off-
input costs, reduced on-farm and off-farm farm impacts of various farming practices on
environmental impacts, and more effective water, soil, and wildlife resources. With this
and sustainable pest management. An likely future in mind, reducing dependence on
ecology-based IPM has the potential of chemical pesticides in favor of ecosystem
decreasing inputs of fuel, machinery, and manipulations is a good strategy for farmers.
synthetic chemicals—all of which are energy
intensive and increasingly costly in terms of Consumers Union, a group that has carried
financial and environmental impact. Such out research and advocacy on various
reductions will benefit the grower and society. pesticide problems for many years, defines
biointensive IPM as the highest level of IPM:
Over-reliance on the use of synthetic pesticides
in crop protection programs around the world “a systems approach to pest management
has resulted in disturbances to the environ- based on an understanding of pest ecology.
ment, pest resurgence, pest resistance to pesti- It begins with steps to accurately diagnose
the nature and source of pest problems,
cides, and lethal and sub-lethal effects on non-
and then relies on a range of preventive
target organisms, including humans (3). These tactics and biological controls to keep pest
side effects have raised public concern about populations within acceptable limits.
the routine use and safety of pesticides. At the Reduced-risk pesticides are used if other
same time, population increases are placing tactics have not been adequately effective,
ever-greater demands upon the “ecological as a last resort, and with care to minimize
services”—that is, provision of clean air, water risks.” (2)
and wildlife habitat—of a landscape
This “biointensive” approach sounds remark-
Prior to the mid-1970s, lygus bugs were ably like the original concept of IPM. Such a
considered to be the key pest in California “systems” approach makes sense both intu-
cotton. Yet in large-scale studies on insec- itively and in practice.
ticidal control of lygus bugs, yields in un-
treated plots were not significantly differ- The primary goal of biointensive IPM is to
ent from those on treated plots. This was provide guidelines and options for the effective
because the insecticides often induced out- management of pests and beneficial organisms
breaks of secondary lepidopterous larvae in an ecological context. The flexibility and
(i.e., cabbage looper, beet armyworm, and environmental compatibility of a biointensive
bollworm) and mite pests which caused ad- IPM strategy make it useful in all types of
ditional damage as well as pest resurgence cropping systems.
of the lygus bug itself. These results, from
an economic point of view, seem paradoxi- Even conventional IPM strategies help to
cal, as the lygus bug treatments were costly, prevent pest problems from developing, and
yet the treated plots consistently had lower reduce or eliminate the use of chemicals in
yields (i.e., it cost farmers money to lose managing problems that do arise. Results of 18
money). This paradox was first pointed out economic evaluations of conventional IPM on
by R. van den Bosch, V. Stern, and L. A. cotton showed a decrease in production costs
Falcon, who forced a reevaluation of the of 7 percent and an average decrease in pesti-
economic basis of Lygus control in Califor- cide use of 15 percent (4). Biointensive IPM
nia cotton (5). would likely decrease chemical use and costs
even further.


Components of Biointensive IPM ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

An important difference between conventional When planning a biointensive IPM program,
and biointensive IPM is that the emphasis of some considerations include:
the latter is on proactive measures to redesign Options for design changes in the agricul-
the agricultural ecosystem to the disadvantage tural system (beneficial organism habitat,
of a pest and to the advantage of its parasite crop rotations)
and predator complex. At the same time, Choice of pest-resistant cultivars
biointensive IPM shares many of the same Technical information needs
components as conventional IPM, including Monitoring options, record keeping, equip-
monitoring, use of economic thresholds, record ment, etc.
keeping, and planning.
The table in Appendix A provides more details
How To Get Started With IPM about these and other ideas that should be
— PLANNING, PLANNING, PLANNING considered when implementing a biointensive
IPM program.
Good planning must precede implementation
of any IPM program, but is particularly impor- The Pest Manager / Ecosystem Manager
tant in a biointensive program. Planning
should be done before planting because many The pest manager is the most important link in
pest strategies require steps or inputs, such as a successful IPM program. The manager must
beneficial organism habitat management, that know the biology of the pest and the beneficial
must be considered well in advance. Attempt- organisms associated with the pest, and under-
ing to jump-start an IPM program in the begin- stand their interactions within the farm envi-
ning or middle of a cropping season generally ronment. As a detailed knowledge of the pest
does not work. is developed, weak links in its life cycle

Blocks on the Pesticide Treadmill

Resistance: Pesticide use exerts a powerful selection pressure for changing the genetic make-up of
a pest population. Naturally resistant individuals in a pest population are able to survive pesti-
cide treatments. The survivors pass on the resistance trait to their offspring. The result is a much
higher percentage of the pest population resistant to a pesticide. In the last decade, the number of
weed species known to be resistant to herbicides rose from 48 to 270, and the number of plant
pathogens resistant to fungicides grew from 100 to 150. Resistance to insecticides is so common —
more than 500 species — that nobody is really keeping score (2).

Resurgence: Pesticides often kill off natural enemies along with the pest. With their natural en-
emies eliminated, there is little to prevent recovered pest populations from exploding to higher,
more damaging numbers than existed before pesticides were applied. Additional chemical pesti-
cide treatments only repeat this cycle.

Secondary Pests: Some potential pests that are normally kept under good control by natural en-
emies become actual pests after their natural enemies are destroyed by pesticides. Mite outbreaks
after pesticide applications are a classic example.

Residues: Only a minute portion of any pesticide application contacts the target organism. The
remainder may degrade harmlessly, but too often water, wind, and soil will carries pesticides to
non-target areas and organisms, affecting the health of human and wildlife populations. Public
concerns over residues are deepened by the lack of research and knowledge about possible syner-
gistic interactions between pesticide residues and the hundreds of other synthetic chemical resi-
dues now found in the environment.


become apparent. These weak links are phases The second set of options is more reactive.
of the life cycle when the pest is most suscep- This simply means that the grower responds to
tible to control measures. The manager must a situation, such as an economically damaging
integrate this knowledge with tools and tech- population of pests, with some type of short-
niques of biointensive IPM to manage not one, term suppressive action. Reactive methods
but several pests. A more accurate title for the generally include inundative releases of bio-
pest manager is “ecosystem doctor,” for he or logical controls, mechanical and physical
controls, and chemical controls.
she must pay close attention to the pulse of the
managed ecosystem and stay abreast of devel-
Proactive Strategies (Cultural Control)
opments in IPM and crop/pest biology and
ecology. In this way, the ecosystem manager • Healthy, biologically active soils (increasing
can take a proactive approach to managing belowground diversity)
pests, developing ideas about system manipu-
lations, testing them, and observing the results. • Habitat for beneficial organisms (increasing
aboveground diversity)
IPM options may be considered proactive or
reactive. Proactive options, such as crop • Appropriate plant cultivars
rotations and creation of habitat for beneficial
organisms, permanently lower the carrying Cultural controls are manipulations of the
capacity of the farm for the pest. The carrying agroecosystem that make the cropping system
capacity is determined by factors like food, less friendly to the establishment and prolifera-
shelter, natural enemies complex, and weather, tion of pest populations. Although they are
designed to have positive effects on farm
which affect the reproduction and survival of a
ecology and pest management, negative im-
species. Cultural controls are generally consid-
pacts may also result, due to variations in
ered to be proactive strategies. weather or changes in crop management.

Carrying Capacity of Farm Systems for Pest Populations:

In a non-farmscaped system, where pests have fewer natural controls and thus reach higher average
populations, they are more likely to approach or exceed the economic threshold level for the crop, making
pesticide treatments likely. In a farmscaped system, greater and more consistent populations of beneficial
organisms put more ecological pressure on the pests, with the result that pest populations are less likely to
approach the economic threshold. In other words, the ecological carrying capacity for a pest will probably be lower in
a farmscaped system. For more on farmscaping, see p. 11.


Maintaining and increasing biological diversity occur there as well. For example, larvae of one
of the farm system is a primary strategy of species of blister beetle consume about 43
cultural control. Decreased biodiversity tends grasshopper eggs before maturing (10). Both
to result in agroecosystems that are unstable are found in the soil. (Unfortunately, although
and prone to recurrent pest outbreaks and blister beetle larvae can help reduce grasshop-
many other problems (5). Systems high in per populations, the adult beetles can be a
biodiversity tend to be more “dynamically serious pest for many vegetable growers.)
stable”—that is, the variety of organisms Overall, a healthy soil with a diversity of
provide more checks and balances on each beneficial organisms and high organic matter
other, which helps prevent one species (i.e., content helps maintain pest populations below
pest species) from overwhelming the system. their economic thresholds.

There are many ways to manage and increase Genetic diversity of a particular crop may be
biodiversity on a farm, both above ground and increased by planting more than one cultivar.
in the soil. In fact, For example, a
diversity above “When we kill off the natural recent experiment
ground influences in China (11)
enemies of a pest we inherit
diversity below demonstrated that
their work”  Carl Huffaker disease-susceptible
ground. Research has
shown that up to half rice varieties
of a plant’s photosynthetic production (carbo- planted in mixtures with resistant varieties had
hydrates) is sent to the roots, and half of that 89% greater yield and a 94% lower incidence of
(along with various amino acids and other rice blast (a fungus) compared to when they
plant products) leaks out the roots into the were grown in monoculture. The experiment,
surrounding soil, providing a food source for which involved five townships in 1998 and ten
microorganisms. These root exudates vary townships in 1999, was so successful that
from plant species to plant species and this fungicidal sprays were no longer applied by
variation influences the type of organisms the end of the two-year program.
associated with the root exudates (6).
Species diversity of the associated plant and
Factors influencing the health and biodiversity animal community can be increased by allow-
of soils include the amount of soil organic ing trees and other native plants to grow in
matter; soil pH; nutrient balance; moisture; and fence rows or along water ways, and by inte-
parent material of the soil. Healthy soils with a grating livestock into the farm system. Use of
diverse community of organisms support plant the following cropping schemes are additional
health and nutrition better than soils deficient ways to increase species diversity. (See
in organic matter and low in species diversity. ATTRA’s Farmscaping to Enhance Biological
Research has shown that excess nutrients (e.g., Control for more information on this topic.)
too much nitrogen) as well as relative nutrient
balance (i.e., ratios of nutrientsfor example, Crop rotations radically alter the environment
twice as much calcium as magnesium, com- both above and below ground, usually to the
pared to equal amounts of both) in soils affect disadvantage of pests of the previous crop.
insect pest response to plants (7, 8). Imbalances The same crop grown year after year on the
in the soil can make a plant more attractive to same field will inevitably build up populations
insect pests (7, 8), less able to recover from pest of organisms that feed on that plant, or, in the
damage, or more susceptible to secondary case of weeds, have a life cycle similar to that
infections by plant pathogens (8). Soils rich in of the crop. Add to this the disruptive effect of
organic matter tend to suppress plant patho- pesticides on species diversity, both above and
gens (9). In addition, it is estimated that 75% of below ground, and the result is an unstable
all insect pests spend part of their life cycle in system in which slight stresses (e.g., new pest
the soil, and many of their natural enemies variety or drought) can devastate the crop.


An enforced rotation program in the Imperial Val- direct return per acre than the alternate crop,
ley of California has effectively controlled the but may also lower management costs for the
sugar beet cyst nematode. Under this program, alternate crop (by reducing weed pressure, for
sugar beets may not be grown more than two example, and thus avoiding one tillage or
years in a row or more than four years out of ten herbicide application), with a net increase in
in clean fields (i.e., non-infested fields). In infested profit.
fields, every year of a sugar beet crop must be
followed by three years of a non-host crop. Other Other Cropping Structure Options
nematode pests commonly controlled with crop
rotation methods include the golden nematode Multiple cropping is the sequential production
of potato, many root-knot nematodes, and the of more than one crop on the same land in one
soybean cyst nematode. year. Depending on the type of cropping
sequence used, multiple cropping can be useful
When making a decision about crop rotation,
as a weed control measure, particularly when
consider the following questions: Is there an
the second crop is interplanted into the first.
economically sustainable crop that can be
rotated into the cropping system? Is it compat-
Interplanting is seeding or planting a crop into a
ible? Important considerations when develop-
growing stand, for example overseeding a
ing a crop rotation are:
cover crop into a grain stand. There may be
microclimate advantages (e.g., timing, wind
• What two (or three or several) crops can
protection, and less radical temperature and
provide an economic return when considered
humidity changes) as well as disadvantages
together as a biological and economic system
(competition for light, water, nutrients) to this
that includes considerations of sustainable soil
strategy. By keeping the soil covered, inter-
management?
planting may also help protect soil against
erosion from wind and rain.
• What are the impacts of this season’s crop-
ping practices on subsequent crops? Intercropping is the practice of growing two or
more crops in the same, alternate, or paired
• What specialized equipment is necessary for rows in the same area. This technique is
the crops? particularly appropriate in vegetable produc-
tion. The advantage of intercropping is that
• What markets are available for the rotation
crops?

A corn/soybean rotation is one example of
rotating compatible economic crops. Corn is a
grass; soybean is a leguminous broadleaf. The
pest complex of each, including soil organisms,
is quite different. Corn rootworm, one of the
major pests of corn, is virtually eliminated by
using this rotation. Both crops generally
provide a reasonable return. Even rotations,
however, create selection pressures that will
ultimately alter pest genetics. A good example
is again the corn rootworm: the corn/bean
rotation has apparently selected for a small
population that can survive a year of non-corn
(i.e., soybean) cropping (12).

Management factors should also be considered. Intercropping French beans with cilantro
For example, one crop may provide a lower —a potential control for symphylans.


the increased diversity helps “disguise” crops plants from these seeds will have a good
from insect pests, and if done well, may allow chance of being better suited to the local envi-
for more efficient utilization of limited soil and ronment and of being more resistant to insects
water resources. Disadvantages may relate to and diseases. Since natural systems are dy-
ease of managing two different crop species namic rather than static, breeding for resistance
with potentially different nutrient, water, and must be an ongoing process, especially in the
light needs, and differences in harvesting time case of plant disease, as the pathogens them-
and methodin close proximity to each other. selves continue to evolve and become resistant
For a detailed discussion, request the ATTRA to control measures (13).
publication, Intercropping: Principles and Produc-
tion Practices. Sanitation involves removing and destroying
the overwintering or breeding sites of the pest
Strip cropping is the practice of growing two or as well as preventing a new pest from establish-
more crops in different strips across a field ing on the farm (e.g., not allowing off-farm soil
wide enough for independent cultivation (e.g., from farm equipment to spread nematodes or
alternating six-row blocks of soybeans and corn plant pathogens to your land). This strategy
or alternating strips of alfalfa and cotton or has been particularly useful in horticultural and
alfalfa and corn). It is commonly practiced to tree-fruit crop situations involving twig and
help reduce soil erosion in hilly areas. Like branch pests. If, however, sanitation involves
intercropping, strip cropping increases the removal of crop residues from the soil surface,
diversity of a cropping area, which in turn may the soil is left exposed to erosion by wind and
help “disguise” the crops from pests. Another water. As with so many decisions in farming,
advantage to this system is that one of the crops both the short- and long-term benefits of each
may act as a reservoir and/or food source for action should be considered when tradeoffs like
beneficial organisms. However, much more this are involved.
research is needed on the complex interactions
between various paired crops and their pest/ Spacing of plants heavily influences the devel-
predator complexes. opment of plant diseases and weed problems.
The distance between plants and rows, the
The options described above can be integrated shape of beds, and the height of plants influ-
with no-till cultivation schemes and all its ence air flow across the crop, which in turn
variations (strip till, ridge till, etc.) as well as determines how long the leaves remain damp
with hedgerows and intercrops designed for from rain and morning dew. Generally speak-
beneficial organism habitat. With all the ing, better air flow will decrease the incidence
cropping and tillage options available, it is of plant disease. However, increased air flow
possible, with creative and informed manage- through wider spacing will also allow more
ment, to evolve a biologically diverse, pest- sunlight to the ground, which may increase
suppressive farming system appropriate to the weed problems. This is another instance in
unique environment of each farm. which detailed knowledge of the crop ecology
is necessary to determine the best pest manage-
Other Cultural Management Options ment strategies. How will the crop react to
increased spacing between rows and between
Disease-free seed and plants are available from plants? Will yields drop because of reduced
most commercial sources, and are certified as crop density? Can this be offset by reduced
such. Use of disease-free seed and nursery pest management costs or fewer losses from
stock is important in preventing the introduc- disease?
tion of disease.
Altered planting dates can at times be used to
Resistant varieties are continually being bred by avoid specific insects, weeds, or diseases. For
researchers. Growers can also do their own example, squash bug infestations on cucurbits
plant breeding simply by collecting non-hybrid can be decreased by the delayed planting
seed from healthy plants in the field. The strategy, i.e., waiting to establish the cucurbit


crop until overwintering adult squash bugs to vegetables by insect pests when hay or straw
have died. To assist with disease management was used as mulch. The difference was due to
decisions, the Cooperative Extension Service spiders, which find mulch more habitable than
(CES) will often issue warnings of “infection bare ground (15). Other researchers have
periods” for certain diseases, based upon the found that living mulches of various clovers
weather. reduce insect pest damage to vegetables and
orchard crops (16). Again, this reduction is due
In some cases, the CES also keeps track of to natural predators and parasites provided
“degree days” needed for certain important habitat by the clovers. Vetch has been used as
insect pests to develop. Insects, being cold- both a nitrogen source and as a weed suppres-
blooded, will not develop below or above sive mulch in tomatoes in Maryland (17).
certain threshold temperatures. Calculating Growers must be aware that mulching may
accumulated degree days, that is, the number also provide a more friendly environment for
of days above the threshold development slugs and snails, which can be particularly
temperature for an insect pest, makes the damaging at the seedling stage.
prediction of certain events, such as egg hatch,
possible. University of California has an excel- Mulching helps to minimize the spread of soil-
lent website that uses weather station data from borne plant pathogens by preventing their
around the state to help California growers transmission through soil splash. Mulch, if
predict pest emergence: <http://
heavy enough, prevents the germination of
www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/WEATHER/
many annual weed seeds. Winged aphids are
ddretrieve.html>.
repelled by silver- or aluminum-colored
mulches (18). Recent springtime field tests at
Some growers gauge the emergence of insect
the Agricultural Research Service in Florence,
pests by the flowering of certain non-crop plant
South Carolina, have indicated that red plastic
species native to the farm. This method uses
the “natural degree days” accumulated by mulch suppresses root-knot nematode damage
plants. For example, a grower might time in tomatoes by diverting resources away from
cabbage planting for three weeks after the the roots (and nematodes) and into foliage and
Amelanchier species (also known as saskatoon, fruit (19).
shadbush, or serviceberry) on their farm are in
bloom. This will enable the grower to avoid Biotech Crops. Gene transfer technology is being
peak egg-laying time of the cabbage maggot fly, used by several companies to develop cultivars
as the egg hatch occurs about the time resistant to insects, diseases, and herbicides.
Amelanchier species are flowering (14). Using An example is the incorporation of genetic
this information, cabbage maggot management material from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a
efforts could be concentrated during a known naturally occurring bacterium, into cotton,
time frame when the early instars (the most corn, and potatoes, to make the plant tissues
easily managed stage) are active. toxic to bollworm, earworm, and potato beetle
larvae, respectively.
Optimum growing conditions are always impor-
tant. Plants that grow quickly and are healthy Whether or not this technology should be
can compete with and resist pests better than adopted is the subject of much debate. Oppo-
slow-growing, weak plants. Too often, plants nents are concerned that by introducing Bt
grown outside their natural ecosystem range genes into plants, selection pressure for resis-
must rely on pesticides to overcome conditions tance to the Bt toxin will intensify and a valu-
and pests to which they are not adapted. able biological control tool will be lost. There
are also concerns about possible impacts of
Mulches, living or non-living, are useful for genetically-modified plant products (i.e., root
suppression of weeds, insect pests, and some exudates) on non-target organisms as well as
plant diseases. Hay and straw, for example, fears of altered genes being transferred to weed
provide habitat for spiders. Research in Ten- relatives of crop plants. Whether there is a
nessee showed a 70% reduction in damage market for gene-altered crops is also a


consideration for farmers and processors. example, focuses on the establishment of
Proponents of this technology argue that use of flowering annual or perennial plants that
such crops decreases the need to use toxic provide pollen and nectar needed during
chemical pesticides. certain parts of the insect life cycle. Other
habitat features provided by farmscaping
Biological Control include water, alternative prey, perching sites,
overwintering sites, and wind protection.
Biological control is the use of living organisms Beneficial insects and other beneficial organ-
—parasites, predators, or pathogens—to main- isms should be viewed as mini-livestock, with
tain pest populations below economically specific habitat and food needs to be included
damaging levels, and may be either natural or in farm planning.
applied. A first step in setting up a biointensive
IPM program is to assess the populations of The success of such efforts depends on knowl-
beneficials and their interactions within the edge of the pests and beneficial organisms
local ecosystem. This will within the cropping
help to determine the system. Where do
potential role of natural the pests and bene-
enemies in the managed ficials overwinter?
agricultural ecosystem. It What plants are hosts
should be noted that some and non-hosts?
groups of beneficials (e.g., When this kind of
spiders, ground beetles, knowledge informs
bats) may be absent or planning, the eco-
scarce on some farms logical balance can
because of lack of habitat. be manipulated in
These organisms might favor of beneficials
make significant contri- and against the
butions to pest manage- Beneficial organisms should be viewed as pests.
ment if provided with mini-livestock, with specific habitat and
adequate habitat. food needs to be included in farm planning. It should be kept in
mind that ecosystem
Natural biological control results when naturally manipulation is a two-edged sword. Some
occurring enemies maintain pests at a lower plant pests (such as the tarnished plant bug
level than would occur without them, and is and lygus bug) are attracted to the same plants
generally characteristic of biodiverse systems. that attract beneficials. The development of
Mammals, birds, bats, insects, fungi, bacteria, beneficial habitats with a mix of plants that
and viruses all have a role to play as predators flower throughout the year can help prevent
and parasites in an agricultural system. By such pests from migrating en masse from
their very nature, pesticides decrease the farmscaped plants to crop plants.
biodiversity of a system, creating the potential
for instability and future problems. Pesticides, See ATTRA’s Farmscaping to Enhance Biological
whether synthetically or botanically derived, Control for a detailed treatment of this subject.
are powerful tools and should be used with
caution. Applied biological control, also known as aug-
mentative biocontrol, involves supplementa-
Creation of habitat to enhance the chances for tion of beneficial organism populations, for
survival and reproduction of beneficial organ- example through periodic releases of parasites,
isms is a concept included in the definition of predators, or pathogens. This can be effective
natural biocontrol. Farmscaping is a term coined in many situations—well-timed inundative
to describe such efforts on farms. releases of Trichogramma egg wasps for co-
Habitat enhancement for beneficial insects, for dling moth control, for instance.


Most of the beneficial organisms used in ap- from a greenhouse and are forced to concen-
plied biological control today are insect para- trate predation/parasitism on the pest(s) at
sites and predators. They control a wide range hand.
of pests from caterpillars to mites. Some spe-
cies of biocontrol organisms, such as An increasing number of commercially avail-
Eretmocerus californicus, a parasitic wasp, are able biocontrol products are made up of micro-
specific to one host—in this case the organisms, including fungi, bacteria, nema-
sweetpotato whitefly. Others, such as green todes, and viruses. Appendix B, Microbial
lacewings, are generalists and will attack many Pesticides, lists some of the formulations avail-
species of aphids and whiteflies. able. Appendix C, Microbial Pesticide Manufac-
turers and Suppliers, provides addresses of
Information about rates and timing of release manufacturers and suppliers.
are available from suppliers of beneficial
organisms. It is important to remember that Mechanical and Physical Controls
released insects are mobile; they are likely to
leave a site if the habitat is not conducive to Methods included in this category utilize some
their survival. Food, nectar, and pollen sources physical component of the environment, such
can be “farmscaped” to provide suitable habi- as temperature, humidity, or light, to the
tat. detriment of the pest. Common examples are
tillage, flaming, flooding, soil solarization, and
The quality of commercially available applied plastic mulches to kill weeds or to prevent
biocontrols is another important consideration. weed seed germination.
For example, if the organisms are not properly
labeled on the outside packaging, they may be Heat or steam sterilization of soil is commonly
mishandled during transport, resulting in the used in greenhouse operations for control of
death of the organisms. A recent study by soil-borne pests. Floating row covers over
Rutgers University (20) noted that only two of vegetable crops exclude flea beetles, cucumber
six suppliers of beneficial nematodes sent the beetles, and adults of the onion, carrot, cab-
expected numbers of organisms, and only one bage, and seed corn root maggots. Insect
supplier out of the six provided information on screens are used in greenhouses to prevent
how to assess product viability. aphids, thrips, mites, and other pests from
entering ventilation ducts. Large, multi-row
While augmentative biocontrols can be applied vacuum machines have been used for pest
with relative ease on small farms and in gar- management in strawberries and vegetable
dens, applying some types of biocontrols crops. Cold storage reduces post-harvest
evenly over large farms has been problematic. disease problems on produce.
New mechanized methods that may improve
the economics and practicality of large-scale Although generally used in small or localized
augmentative biocontrol include ground situations, some methods of mechanical/
application with “biosprayers” and aerial physical control are finding wider acceptance
delivery using small-scale (radio-controlled) or because they are generally more friendly to the
conventional aircraft (21). environment.

Inundative releases of beneficials into green- Pest Identification
houses can be particularly effective. In the
controlled environment of a greenhouse, pest A crucial step in any IPM program is to identify
infestations can be devastating; there are no the pest. The effectiveness of both proactive
natural controls in place to suppress pest and reactive pest management measures
populations once an infestation begins. For this depend on correct identification. Misidentific-
reason, monitoring is very important. If an ation of the pest may be worse than useless; it
infestation occurs, it can spread quickly if not may actually be harmful and cost time and
detected early and managed. Once introduced, money. Help with positive identification of
biological control agents cannot escape pests may be obtained from university person-


nel, private consultants, the Cooperative Exten- Monitoring
sion Service, and books and websites listed
under Useful Resources at the end of this Monitoring involves systematically checking
publication. crop fields for pests and beneficials, at regular
intervals and at critical times, to gather infor-
After a pest is identified, appropriate and mation about the crop, pests, and natural
effective management depends on knowing enemies. Sweep nets, sticky traps, and phero-
mone traps can be used to collect insects for
answers to a number of questions. These may
both identification and population density
include:
information. Leaf counts are one method for
recording plant growth stages. Square-foot or
• What plants are hosts and non-hosts of this larger grids laid out in a field can provide a
pest? basis for comparative weed counts. Records of
rainfall and temperature are sometimes used to
• When does the pest emerge or first appear? predict the likelihood of disease infections.

• Where does it lay its eggs? In the case of Specific scouting methods have been developed
weeds, where is the seed source? For plant for many crops. The Cooperative Extension
pathogens, where is the source(s) of Service can provide a list of IPM manuals
inoculum? available in each state. Many resources are
now available via Internet (see Appendix F for
• Where, how, and in what form does the pest IPM-related websites).
overwinter?
The more often a crop is monitored, the more
information the grower has about what is
• How might the cropping system be altered
happening in the fields. Monitoring activity
to make life more difficult for the pest and should be balanced against its costs. Frequency
easier for its natural controls? may vary with temperature, crop, growth
phase of the crop, and pest populations. If a
Monitoring (field scouting) and economic pest population is approaching economically
injury and action levels are used to help answer damaging levels, the grower will want to
these and additional questions (22). monitor more frequently.

yellow sticky
monitoring card

Monitoring for squash pests (aphids and whiteflies).


Economic Injury and Action Levels cutworm can do more damage to an emerging
cotton plant than to a plant that is six weeks
The economic injury level (EIL) is the pest old. Clearly, this pest’s EIL will change as the
population that inflicts crop damage greater cotton crop develops.
than the cost of control measures. Because
growers will generally want to act before a ETLs are intimately related to the value of the
population reaches EIL, IPM programs use the crop and the part of the crop being attacked.
concept of an economic threshold level (ETL or For example, a pest that attacks the fruit or
ET), also known as an action threshold. The vegetable will have a much lower ETL (that is,
ETL is closely related to the EIL, and is the the pest must be controlled at lower popula-
point at which suppression tactics should be tions) than a pest that attacks a non-saleable
applied in order to prevent pest populations part of the plant. The exception to this rule is
from increasing to injurious levels. an insect or nematode pest that is also a disease
vector. Depending on the severity of the
In practice, many crops have no established disease, the grower may face a situation where
EILs or ETLs, or the EILs that have been devel- the ETL for a particular pest is zero, i.e., the
oped may be static over the course of a season crop cannot tolerate the presence of a single
and thus not reflect the changing nature of the pest of that particular species because the
agricultural ecosystem. For example, a single disease it transmits is so destructive.

Special Considerations ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Cosmetic Damage and Aesthetics Time and Resources

Consumer attitudes toward how produce looks A successful biointensive IPM program takes
is often a major factor when determining a time, money, patience, short- and long-term
crop’s sale price. Cosmetic damage is an planning, flexibility, and commitment. The
important factor when calculating the EIL, pest manager must spend time on self-educa-
since pest damage, however superficial, lowers tion and on making contacts with Extension
a crop’s market value. Growers selling to a and research personnel. Be aware that some
market that is informed about IPM or about IPM strategies, such as increasing beneficial
organically grown produce may be able to insect habitat, may take more than a year to
tolerate higher levels of cosmetic damage to show results.
their produce.
A well-run biointensive IPM system may
Record-keeping: “Past is prologue” require a larger initial outlay in terms of time
and money than a conventional IPM program.
Monitoring goes hand-in-hand with record- In the long run, however, a good biointensive
keeping, which forms the collective “memory” IPM program should pay for itself. Direct
of the farm. Records should not only provide pesticide application costs are saved and
information about when and where pest equipment wear and tear may be reduced.
problems have occurred, but should also
incorporate information about cultural prac- Chemical Controls
tices (irrigation, cultivation, fertilization,
mowing, etc.) and their effect on pest and Included in this category are both synthetic
beneficial populations. The effects of non- pesticides and botanical pesticides.
biotic factors, especially weather, on pest and
beneficial populations should also be noted. Synthetic pesticides comprise a wide range of
Record-keeping is simply a systematic ap- man-made chemicals used to control
proach to learning from experience. A variety insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, plant dis-
of software programs are now available to help eases, and vertebrate and invertebrate pests.
growers keep track of—and access—data on These powerful chemicals are fast acting and
their farm’s inputs and outputs. relatively inexpensive to purchase.


Pesticides are the option of last resort in IPM Biorational pesticides. Although use of this term
programs because of their potential negative is relatively common, there is no legally ac-
impacts on the environment, which result from cepted definition (24). Biorational pesticides
the manufacturing process as well as from their are generally considered to be derived from
application on the farm. Pesticides should be naturally occurring compounds or are formula-
used only when other measures, such as bio- tions of microorganisms. Biorationals have a
logical or cultural controls, have failed to keep narrow target range and are environmentally
pest populations from approaching economi- benign. Formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis,
cally damaging levels. commonly known as Bt, are perhaps the best-
known biorational pesticide. Other examples
include silica aerogels, insect growth regula-
tors, and particle film barriers.

Particle film barriers. A relatively new technol-
ogy, particle film barriers are currently avail-
able under the tradename Surround WP Crop
Protectant. The active ingredient is kaolin clay,
an edible mineral long used as an anti-caking
agent in processed foods, and in such products
as toothpaste and Kaopectactate. There ap-
pears to be no mammalian toxicity or any
danger to the environment posed by the use of
kaolin in pest control. The kaolin in Surround
is processed to a specific particle size range,
and combined with a sticker-spreader. Non-
processed kaolin clay may be phytotoxic.

Surround is sprayed on as a liquid, which
evaporates, leaving a protective powdery film
on the surfaces of leaves, stems, and fruit.
Conventional spray equipment can be used and
full coverage is important. The film works to
deter insects in several ways. Tiny particles of
the clay attach to the insects when they contact
the plant, agitating and repelling them. Even if
particles don’t attach to their bodies, the insects
The pesticide Agrophos used in a new planting. The red
color code denotes the most hazardous class of chemical. may find the coated plant or fruit unsuitable for
In this instance, the farmer had applied the product in feeding and egg-laying. In addition, the highly
the bag (a granular systemic insecticide) by hand. reflective white coating makes the plant less
recognizable as a host. For more information
If chemical pesticides must be used, it is to the about kaolin clay as a pest management tool,
grower’s advantage to choose the least-toxic see ATTRA’s publications Kaolin Clay for Man-
pesticide that will control the pest but not harm agement of Glassy-winged Sharpshooter in Grapes
non-target organisms such as birds, fish, and and Insect IPM in Apples: Kaolin Clay.
mammals. Pesticides that are short-lived or act
on one or a few specific organisms are in this Sugar Esters. Throughout four years of tests,
class. Examples include insecticidal soaps, sugar esters have performed as well as or better
horticultural oils, copper compounds (e.g., than conventional insecticides against mites
bordeaux mix), sulfur, boric acid, and sugar and aphids in apple orchards; psylla in pear
esters (23). orchards; whiteflies, thrips, and mites on


vegetables; and whiteflies on cotton. How- Compost teas are most commonly used for foliar
ever, sugar esters are not effective against disease control and applied as foliar nutrient
insect eggs. Insecticidal properties of sugar sprays. The idea underlying the use of com-
esters were first investigated a decade ago post teas is that a solution of beneficial mi-
when a scientist noticed that tobacco leaf hairs crobes and some nutrients is created, then
exuded sugar esters for defense against some applied to plants to increase the diversity of
soft-bodied insect pests. Similar to insecticidal organisms on leaf surfaces. This diversity
soap in their action, these chemicals act as competes with pathogenic organisms, making
contact insecticides and degrade into environ- it more difficult for them to become established
mentally benign sugars and fatty acids after and infect the plant.
application. AVA Chemical Ventures of Ports-
mouth, NH hopes to have a product based on An important consideration when using
sucrose octanoate commercially available by compost teas is that high-quality, well-aged
the end of 2001. Contact: Gary J. Puterka, ARS compost be used, to avoid contamination of
Appalachian Fruit Research Station, plant parts by animal pathogens found in
Kearneysville, WV, (304) 725-3451 ext. 361, fax manures that may be a component of the
(304) 728-2340, e-mail compost. There are different techniques for
<gputerka@afrs.ars.usda.gov>. creating compost tea. The compost can be
immersed in the water, or the water can be
Because pest resistance to chemical controls
circulated through the compost. An effort
has become so common, susceptibility to
should be made to maintain an aerobic envi-
pesticides is increasingly being viewed by
ronment in the compost/water mixture.
growers as a trait worth preserving. One
ATTRA has more information about compost
example of the economic impact of resistance
teas, available on request.
to insecticides has been documented in Michi-
gan, where insecticide resistance in Colorado
Pesticide application techniques
potato beetle was first reported in 1984 and
caused severe economic problems beginning
in 1991. In 1991 and following years, control As monetary and environmental costs of
costs were as high as $412/hectare in districts chemical pesticides escalate, it makes sense to
most seriously affected, in contrast to $35−74/ increase the efficiency of chemical applications.
hectare in areas where resistance was not a Correct nozzle placement, nozzle type, and nozzle
problem (25). The less a product is applied, pressure are very important considerations.
the longer a pest population will remain Misdirected sprays, inappropriate nozzle size,
susceptible to that product. Routine use of any or worn nozzles will ultimately cost the grower
pesticide is a problematic strategy. money and increase the risk of environmental
damage.
Botanical pesticides are prepared in various
ways. They can be as simple as pureed plant If the monitoring program indicates that the
leaves, extracts of plant parts, or chemicals pest outbreak is isolated to a particular loca-
purified from plants. Pyrethrum, neem formu- tion, spot treatment of only the infested area will
lations, and rotenone are examples of botani- not only save time and money, but will con-
cals. Some botanicals are broad-spectrum serve natural enemies located in other parts of
pesticides. Others, like ryania, are very spe- the field. The grower should also time treat-
cific. Botanicals are generally less harmful in ments to be least disruptive of other organisms.
the environment than synthetic pesticides This is yet another example where knowledge
because they degrade quickly, but they can be about the agroecosystem is important.
just as deadly to beneficials as synthetic pesti-
cides. However, they are less hazardous to With the increasing popularity of no-till and
transport and in some cases can be formulated related conservation tillage practices, herbicide
on-farm. The manufacture of botanicals use has increased. One way to increase appli-
generally results in fewer toxic by-products. cation efficiency and decrease costs of


herbicide use is through band application. This Integrated Weed Management
puts the herbicide only where it is needed,
Systems
usually in soil disturbed by tillage or seed
planting, where weeds are most likely to
sprout. Weeds as competitors in crops present a
number of unique challenges that need to be
Baits and microencapsulation of pesticides are recognized when developing management
promising technologies. For example, Slam strategies. The intensity of weed problems
is an insecticide-bait mixture for control of during a growing season will be influenced by
corn rootworm. It is a formulation of a bait, weed population levels in previous years. The
curcubitacin B, and carbaryl (Sevin) in axiom “one year’s seeding equals seven years’
microspheres. It is selective, and reduces the weeding” is apt.
amount of carbaryl needed to control the
rootworm by up to 90%. (Remember that crop Weed control costs cannot necessarily be
rotation will generally eliminate the need for calculated against the current year’s crop
any corn rootworm chemical control.) production costs. Weeds present a physical
problem for harvesting. Noxious weed seed
Another example of bait-insecticide technol- mixed with grain reduces the price paid to
ogy is the boll weevil bait tube. It lures the growers. If the seed is sold for crop produc-
boll weevil using a synthetic sex pheromone. tion the weed can be spread to new areas. For
Each tube contains about 20 grams of example, the perennial pepperweed, thought
malathion, which kills the boll weevil. This to have been introduced to California in sugar
technique reduces the pesticide used in cotton beet seed, now infests thousands of acres in
fields by up to 80% and conserves beneficials. the state. In addition, weed economic thresh-
It is most effective in managing low, early- olds must take into account multiple species
season populations of the boll weevil. and variable competetive ability of different
crops. For example, 12.7 cocklebur plants in

Sustainable Agriculture and IPM
Sustainable agriculture is a system of agriculture that is ecologically, economically, and socially viable, in
the short as well as long term. Rather than standing for a specific set of farming practices, a sustainable
agriculture represents the goal of developing a food production system that:

yields plentiful, affordable, high-quality food and other agricultural products

does not deplete or damage natural resources (such as soil, water, wildlife, fossil fuels, or the
germplasm base)

promotes the health of the environment

supports a broad base and diversity of farms and the health of rural communities

depends on energy from the sun and on natural biological processes for fertility and pest management

can last indefinitely

IPM and sustainable agriculture share the goal of developing agricultural systems that are ecologically and
economically sound. IPM may be considered a key component of a sustainable agriculture system.
A premise common to IPM and sustainable agriculture is that a healthy agroecosystem depends on healthy
soils and managed diversity. One of the reasons modern agriculture has evolved into a system of large mo-
nocultures is to decrease the range of variables to be managed. However, a system with few species, much
like a table with too few legs, is unstable.


10 sq. meters of corn cause a 10% yield loss. • Surface residue management — As men-
Only 2 cockleburs in the same area planted to tioned earlier, a thick mulch may shade the
soybeans will cause the same 10% crop loss soil enough to keep weed seeds from
(12). germinating. In addition, some plant
residues are allelopathic, releasing com-
“Rotation crops, when accompanied by care in pounds that naturally suppress seed germi-
the use of pure seed, is the most effective means nation.
yet devised for keeping land free of weeds. No • Altered plant spacing or row width — An
other method of weed control, mechanical, chemi- example is narrow-row (7–18 between
cal, or biological, is so economical or so easily prac- rows compared to conventional 36–39
ticed as a well-arranged sequence of tillage and between rows) soybean plantings. The
cropping.” faster the leaves shade the ground, the less
Source: Leighty, Clyde E. 1938. Crop Rotation. p. 406-429. weeds will be a problem.
In: Soils and Men, 1938 Yearbook of Agriculture. U.S. Govt. • Herbivores — Cattle, geese, goats, and
Print. Office, Washington, DC.
insects can be used to reduce populations
of specific weeds in special situations.
Tactics that can be integrated into weed man- Cattle, for example, relish Johnson grass.
agement systems include: Weeder geese were commonly used in
cotton fields before the advent of herbi-
• Prevention — The backbone of any success-
cides. Musk thistle populations can be
ful weed management strategy is preven-
satisfactorily reduced by crown- and seed-
tion. It is important to prevent the intro-
eating weevils. Goats may be used for
duction of seeds into the field through
sources like irrigation water or manure. large stands of various noxious weeds.
• Adjusting herbicide use to situation —
• Crop rotation —A practical and effective Herbicide selection and rate can be ad-
method of weed management (discussed in justed depending upon weed size, weed
previous sections). species, and soil moisture. Young weeds
are more susceptible to chemicals than
• Cultivation — Steel in the Field: A Farmer’s older weeds.
Guide to Weed Management Tools shows how
today’s implements and techniques can By integrating a variety of tactics, farmers can
handle weeds while reducing or eliminat- reduce or eliminate herbicide use. For more
ing herbicides (26). information about weed management options
see ATTRA’s publication, Principles of Sustain-
• Flame weeding — good for control of small able Weed Management for Croplands.
weeds.

• Delayed planting — Early-germinating WEED PREVENTION
weeds can be destroyed by tillage. And
with warmer weather, the subsequently • Have a long, diverse rotation
planted crop (depending on the crop, of • Sow clean seed
course) will grow more quickly, thus com- • Prevent weed seed formation
peting better with weeds. • Avoid imported feeds or manures
• Compost all manure thoroughly
• Staggered planting schedule — This will • Control weeds in field borders
allow more time for mechanical weed • Delay planting the crop (for faster crop
control, if needed. This also lessens the growth and quicker ground coverage)
weather risks and spaces out the work load • Maintain good soil quality
at harvest time.


Current Status of IPM ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Crops with Developed IPM Programs for measurement have been criticized for not
distinguishing between practices that are
In the last twenty years or so, IPM programs related to “treatment” and those that are “pre-
have been developed for important pests in ventive,” that is, based on altering the biologi-
corn, soybeans, cotton, citrus, apples, grapes, cal and ecological interactions between crops,
walnuts, strawberries, alfalfa, pecans, and most pests, and beneficial organisms. Practices that
other major crops. These programs are con- constitute “treatment” with or contribute to the
stantly being revised or fine-tuned, and occa- efficiency of pesticides are considered as “in-
sionally undergo a significant overhaul as the dicative of an IPM approach” by USDA’s
introduction of a new technology or new pest criteria, as are practices that draw upon and are
makes the present IPM program obsolete. most compatible with biological relationships
on the farm (29).
The best source of information on conventional
IPM is the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) A 1998 USDA-funded survey of pest manage-
associated with the land-grant university in ment practices was published in August 1999
each state. Booklets and fact sheets describing and is available at http://www.reeusda.
IPM programs and control measures for a wide gov/ipm/publications.htm. Highlights of
range of crops and livestock are available free this report are excerpted in Appendix E, Pest
or for a small charge. For the address of a state Management Practices: 1998 USDA Survey
IPM coordinator, refer to the Directory of State Summary Highlights.
Extension Integrated Pest Management Coordina-
tors. A free copy can be obtained from the The primary goal of biointensive IPM is to
Cooperative State Research, Education, and provide guidelines and options for the effective
Extension Service (27), or through the world management of pests and beneficial organisms
wide web at http://www.reeusda.gov/ipm/ in an ecological context. This requires a some-
ipmdirectory.pdf. (Adobe Acrobat Reader what different set of knowledge from that
must be loaded on your computer in order to which supports conventional IPM, which in
access this page.) turn requires a shift in research focus and
approach. Recommended actions to better
Government Policy facilitate the transition to biointensive IPM are:

In 1993, leaders from USDA, EPA, and FDA • Build the knowledge/information infra-
announced a goal of placing 75% of U.S. crop structure by making changes in research
acreage under IPM by the year 2000. The IPM and education priorities in order to empha-
Initiative described three phases: size ecology-based pest management

1. Create teams of researchers, Extension • Redesign government programs to promote
personnel, and growers to propose projects biointensive IPM, not “Integrated Pesticide
to achieve the 75% goal. Management”

2. Fund the best of those projects. • Offer consumers more choices in the mar-
ketplace
3. Facilitate privatization of IPM practices
developed in the process. • Use the market clout of government and
large corporations
Although some progress is evident, the Initia-
tive has not received full funding from Con- • Use regulation more consciously, intelli-
gress (28). In addition, the USDA’s criteria gently, and efficiently


The Future of IPM ○ ○ ○ ○

As this publication has highlighted, IPM in the helped open the market for a new generation of
future will emphasize biological and ecological microbial pesticides. For more information about
knowledge in managing pests. Beyond that, microbial and “biopesticides”, see Appendix B,
specific areas are described here that will Microbial Pesticides, and Appendix C, Microbial
impact research and implementation of IPM in Pesticide Manufacturers and Suppliers, and visit
the future. EPA’s biopesticides website at: http://
www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides/.
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) (Please note that this website will be discontin-
ued sometime in 2001.)
The FQPA, the amended Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), Research is proceeding on natural endophytes —
requires the EPA to review all federally regis- fungi or bacteria that have a symbiotic (mutu-
tered pesticides in the next 10 years and to use ally beneficial) relationship with their host
a more comprehensive health standard when plant—and their effects on plant pests. This
allowing re-registra- research might
tion. The ultimate yield products
impact is unknown, that could be
“A convergence of technical, environmental and
but FQPA will most used to inocu-
social forces is moving agriculture towards more
likely result in stricter late plants
non-pesticide pest management alternatives like
regulations concern- against certain
biological control, host plant resistance and
ing pesticide residues pests.
cultural management.”
in food, particularly —Michael Fitzner, National IPM Program Leader,
with respect to Synthetic
USDA Extension Service
organochlorines, beneficial
organophosphates, attractants such
and carbamates. Some of the most toxic pesti- as Predfeed IPM and L-tryptophan may help
cides have already been “de-registered” with increase the efficacy of natural controls by
respect to some of their former uses. These attracting beneficials to a crop in greater num-
regulations may provide incentive for more bers than usual.
widespread adoption of IPM. More informa-
tion, including implementation status (from an More Weed IPM
August 1999 Progress Report) can be found at
the FQPA homepage: http://www.epa.gov/ Weeds are the major deterrent to the develop-
opppsps1/fqpa/. ment of more sustainable agricultural systems,
particularly in agronomic crops. Problems
New Options associated with soil erosion and water quality
are generally the result of weed control mea-
Pest control methods are evolving and diversi- sures like tillage, herbicides, cultivation, plant-
fying in response to public awareness of ing date and pattern, etc. (30). In the future,
environmental and health impacts of synthetic research will focus not on symptoms, such as
chemical pesticides and resulting legislation. soil erosion, but on basic problems such as how
The strong growth of the organic foods mar- to sustainably manage soils. Weeds, as an
ket—20% annual expansion for the past several important facet of sustainable soil manage-
years—may also be a factor in the accelerated ment, will consequently receive more emphasis
development of organic pest management in IPM or Integrated Crop Management (ICM)
methods. programs.

Agricultural pests are developing resistance to
many synthetic agrichemicals, and new syn-
thetic chemicals are being registered at a
slower rate than in the past. This situation has


On-farm Resources selves with the Internet. See Appendix F for a
thorough listing of IPM resources available on
As farm management strategies become in- the Internet.
creasingly fine-tuned to preserve a profitable
bottom line, the conservation, utilization, and IPM Certification and Marketing
development of on-farm resources will take on
added importance. In the context of Certification of crops raised
IPM, this will mean greater empha- according to IPM or some
sis on soil management as well as other ecology-based standards
on conserving beneficial organisms, may give growers a marketing
retaining and developing beneficial advantage as public concerns
habitats, and perhaps developing about health and environmen-
on-farm insectaries for rearing tal safety increase. For ex-
beneficial insects. ample, since 1995, Wegmans
has sold IPM-labeled fresh-
IPM On-line market sweet corn in its
Corning, Geneva, Ithaca,
There is an increasing body of infor- Syracuse, and Rochester, New
mation about production, market- York stores. Wegmans has
ing, and recordkeeping available to also
growers via the Internet. The added IPM-labeled corn,
Internet is also a good source of in- beets, and beans to its shelves
formation about IPM, beneficial insects, prod- of canned vegetables. One goal of the program,
ucts, and pest control options for individual in addition to being a marketing vehicle, is to
crops. IPM specialists are generating high- educate consumers about agriculture and the
quality websites as a modern educational deliv- food system. Another goal is to keep all grow-
ery tool, and many Extension Service leaflets ers moving along the “IPM Continuum.”
are now being made available in electronic for- Growers must have an 80% “score” on the IPM
mat only. This trend will only accelerate as program elements within three years, or face
more and more agriculturists familiarize them- losing Wegmans as a buyer.

One Generic Model for Ecolabel/IPM Certification Standards*


These “ecolabels,” as they’re known, are There has been an IPM labeling program
becoming more popular, with over a dozen casualty in 2000. Massachusetts’s “Partners
brands now in existence. They may provide with Nature” marketing program closed its
for a more certain market and perhaps a price doors after losing funding support from the
premium to help growers offset any costs Massachusetts Department of Food and Agri-
associated with implementing sustainable culture. The program, which included IPM
farming practices. A possible downside to production guidelines, had operated since
implementing such programs is that they 1994, with 51 growers participating in 1999.
require additional paperwork, development of
standards and guidelines, and inspections. A bibliography of IPM Certification, Labeling,
There is concern from some quarters that IPM and Marketing can be found at: http://
labeling will cause consumers to raise more www.ipminstitute.org/ipm_bibliography.htm.
questions about pesticide use and the safety of
conventional produce. Some advocates of Summary ○ ○ ○ ○
organic farming worry about consumer confu-
sion over the relationship of the ecolabel to the
IPM can be a flexible and valuable tool when
“Certified Organic” label.
used as a concept with which to approach pest
management. IPM is not a cookbook recipe for
Mothers Others for a Livable Planet, a
pest control, but a flexible approach for dealing
national, non-profit, consumer advocacy and
with agriculture’s ever-changing financial,
environmental education organization, has
regulatory, and physical environment.
partnered with apple farmers in the Northeast
region to create a supportive market environ-
The key to effective IPM is the farmer’s under-
ment for farm products that are locally grown
standing of its concepts. In 1916, Liberty Hyde
and ecologically responsible. The result is the
Bailey wrote a small book, entitled The Prin-
Core Values eco-label:
ciples of Fruit Growing, as part of a Rural Science
Series published by MacMillan Co. The text is
a marvelous mix of scientific theory and prac-
tice. Bailey ended with the following note:

A CORE Values Northeast apple is locally “We have now completed the fruit book,
grown in the Northeast (New York and New having surveyed the field. It is a field of
England) by farmers who are striving to pro- great variety, demanding many qualities on
vide apples of superior taste and quality while the part of the successful grower. The
maintaining healthy, ecologically balanced grower should first apprehend the prin-
growing environments. Growers whose apples ciples and the underlying reasons, and to
bear the CORE Values Northeast seal are teach this is the prime purpose of the book.
accredited in knowledge-based biointensive If the grower knows why, he will teach
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) production himself how” (31).
methods. For more information about this
program, visit: http://www.corevalues.org/
cvn/home.html.
Feedback
The ecolabel to the right is a result of a Help us better help farmers. If you
collaboration between the World Wild- have suggestions for improvement of
life Fund (WWF), the Wisconsin this publi-cation, areas about which
Potato and Vegetable Growers you’d like more information or detail,
Association (WPVGA), and the ideas, case studies, or sources of good
University of Wisconsin. Raising IPM information (articles or websites),
consumer demand for biology-based- please call Rex Dufour at 530-756-8518
ext. 39, or e-mail at rexd@ncat.org.
IPM farm products is the goal of the program.


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