This dissertation is a study on the management of emergency evacuations as it pertains tothe elderly, impoverished, and disabled communities. Each of the special needs communities, which are the focus of this study are often an afterthought in both the planning and execution phases of emergency evacuations. It is important that the emergency management community improves its management of emergency evacuation and interactions with the local populaces to prevent travesties similar to those that occurred prior to, during, and following hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Following the 2005 hurricane season, the federal government has provided ample funding to states and local governments for emergency planning. While the funding is tracked to the point they are dispensed, there is no accountability as to fulfilling the requirements defined in the National Response Framework or the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act.

1. MANAGING EMERGENCY EVACUATIONS OF THE ELDERLY,
IMPOVERISHED, AND DISABLED (EID) COMMUNITIES DURING
DISASTERS
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management
By
Terrance J. Jackson
Colorado Technical University
March 31, 2015

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3. Committee
__________________________________________
Angelia Griffin, DM, Chair
__________________________________________
Michael Hummel, PhD, Committee Member
__________________________________________
Rae Denise Madison, DM, Committee Member
__________________________________________
Date Approved

4. 1
© Terrance J. Jackson, 2015

5. 2
Abstract
This dissertation is a study on the management of emergency evacuations as it pertains to
the elderly, impoverished, and disabled communities. Each of the special needs
communities, which are the focus of this study are often an afterthought in both the
planning and execution phases of emergency evacuations. It is important that the
emergency management community improves its management of emergency evacuation
and interactions with the local populaces to prevent travesties similar to those that
occurred prior to, during, and following hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Following the 2005
hurricane season, the federal government has provided ample funding to states and local
governments for emergency planning. While the funding is tracked to the point they are
dispensed, there is no accountability as to fulfilling the requirements defined in the
National Response Framework or the Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Act.
Keywords: special needs, management, planning, evacuations, accountability, elderly,
impoverished, disabled

6. 3
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my God, my family and friends who have
inspired me to do better and be better than even my wildest dreams. To my grandmother
Ruby, who always encouraged me to go back to school so that I could “take care of her”
and more importantly to finish the journey that I started years ago; this is for you! To my
grandmother Lillie, thank you for encouraging me when I left college to join the Marines.
To my mother Margaret, thank you for being my covering, my prayer warrior, and
protector whenever I needed you, you were there. To my father William, thank you for
teaching me what hard work and dedication truly means. To my brothers Darryl and
Dedrick, thank you for all of the laughs and giving me someone to look up to and learn
from over the years. I am grateful that our bond is stronger than ever. To my Aunt Gwen,
you are like my second mother whose positivity, encouragement, and laughter are always
worth hearing. To my Uncle John, you have always been a positive role model in my
life and for that I humbly say thank you for everything you have done and every bit of
guidance you have given. To my cousin Kellie, you have no idea the amount of pride
and inspiration that you have given me towards education and more importantly in life.
You have my utmost adoration and love because you were the first in our generation and
you continue to lead from the front. To my sister Loren, thank you for all of your words
of encouragement, for being a listening ear, and for helping find participants for this
study. I could not have done it without you. To my best friend and brother Walter, you
have always encouraged and pushed me to be the best in whatever I do! To my brother in
Christ Todd, thanks for always having my back and being ready to pray whenever I need
you. To my Uncle Pete, your honorable service in the military is what made me want to

7. 4
serve. To my Aunt Sylvia, you always have words of encouragement and enlightenment
ready whenever I needed to hear it. To my mother-in-law Joan, you have been a blessing
to our family through your prayers and multitude of help in the house and with the kids.
Thank you!
To my children Christion, Cayden, Raziah, Terrance II, Janai Ruby, and Taylor, I
thank you for your patience during this journey. I did this more for you than for anyone
else so that you can see that you can do ANYTHING that you put your mind to do. Let
this be our legacy and that this encourages you to be ALL that God will have you to be
and to let nothing keep you from it.
To my wife, my confident, my rock, and my queen Tricia Jeneen Jackson, I
dedicate this to you because without you; I could not have done this. You have supported
me loudly and quietly and pushed me through when I felt like giving up. I love you more
than you will ever know and I truly believe my grandmother (Ruby) sent you my way.
You gave me hope, dreams, and your love and I could not ask for more. Thank you for
everything you do for our family and holding things together while I made my dreams
come true. This is our foundation that will help me keep my promise that I made to you
many years ago and that is to give you the world; not because you want it, but because
you absolutely deserve it! I love you Mrs. Jackson. This is for you!

8. 5
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Angelia Griffin, for being my advisor during this
journey. Thank you for all of the encouragement, motivation, and late night
conversations to steer me back on path and away from those frustrating moments of
research. Your passion for learning and helping others succeed has inspired me to do the
same. Most of all, thank you for the prayers and words of support to my wife during this
long and rewarding journey. Without your guidance, I would not be here today. I
believe we will remain connected for years to come. I would also like to thank Dr. Rae
Denise Madison for just being who you are. Thank you for accepting to be on my
committee and for all the encouragement given from the very first symposium to the last.
The feedback you gave is invaluable and immeasurable. Thank you Dr. Michael
Hummel for the insight and interaction you provided during each class that I was
fortunate enough to have you as an instructor, as well as, each of the symposium sessions.
You are a wealth of information in Homeland Security and I thank you for being a part of
my committee and helping me to achieve my goal. Dr. Michael Alexander thank you for
being there when I needed you most during my final defense while filling in at the last
minute. Thank you for your feedback and words of encouragement to disseminate this
information to the masses. You are much appreciated. I could never thank you all
enough, but know that I am forever in awe of your leadership, guidance, and the impact
you have had on all of the learners that have crossed your paths. Special thanks to all of
the participants of this study. It is with hope that the information gathered within this
study will help guide the emergency management community in saving the lives of the
special needs populace.

9. 6
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 5
Table of Contents ............................................................................................... 6
List of Tables...................................................................................................... 9
List of Figures .................................................................................................. 10
Chapter One.......................................................................................................... 11
Background....................................................................................................... 12
Problem Opportunity Statement ....................................................................... 12
Purpose Statement............................................................................................. 13
Research Question(s) ........................................................................................ 14
Proposition........................................................................................................ 15
Theoretical Perspectives ................................................................................... 15
Assumptions/Biases.......................................................................................... 16
Significance of the Study.................................................................................. 17
Delimitations..................................................................................................... 18
Limitations........................................................................................................ 18
Definition of Terms........................................................................................... 19
General Overview of the Research Design....................................................... 20
Summary of Chapter One ................................................................................. 20

10. 7
Organization of Proposal .................................................................................. 21
Chapter Two.......................................................................................................... 22
Summary of Literature Review......................................................................... 50
Chapter Three........................................................................................................ 51
Research Tradition(s)........................................................................................ 51
Research Questions, Propositions, and/or Hypotheses..................................... 51
Research Design................................................................................................ 53
Population and Sample ................................................................................. 54
Sampling Procedure...................................................................................... 54
Instrumentation ............................................................................................. 55
Validity ......................................................................................................... 55
Reliability...................................................................................................... 56
Data Collection ............................................................................................. 56
Data Analysis................................................................................................ 59
Summary of Chapter Three............................................................................... 59
Chapter Four ......................................................................................................... 61
Participant Demographics................................................................................. 62
Presentation of the Data.................................................................................... 65
Presentation and Discussion of Findings .......................................................... 74

11. 8
Summary of Chapter......................................................................................... 79
Chapter Five.......................................................................................................... 81
Findings and Conclusions................................................................................. 82
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................... 87
Implications for Practice................................................................................... 88
Implications of Study and Recommendations for Future Research.................. 91
Reflections ........................................................................................................ 92
Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 93
References............................................................................................................. 95
AppendiX............................................................................................................ 102
Appendix A - CITI.............................................................................................. 102
Appendix B - INFORMED CONSENT ............................................................. 103
Appendix C – INTERVIEW QUESTIONS........................................................ 106
Appendix D – PERSONAL CV.......................................................................... 107

12. 9
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Demographics ....................................................................................... 53

13. 10
List of Figures
Figure 4.1 Demographics...................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.2 Population............................................................................................ 55
Figure 4.3 Question 1............................................................................................ 56
Figure 4.4 Question 2............................................................................................ 57
Figure 4.5 Question 3............................................................................................ 58
Figure 4.6 Question 4............................................................................................ 59
Figure 4.7 Question 5............................................................................................ 60
Figure 4.8 Question 6............................................................................................ 61
Figure 4.9 Question 7............................................................................................ 62
Figure 4.10 Question 8.......................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.11 Question 9.......................................................................................... 64

14. 11
CHAPTER ONE
The focus of this qualitative phenomenological study is to determine how to
improve the management of the elderly, impoverished, and disabled (EID) communities
during emergency evacuations. A purposive sample was interviewed utilizing open-
ended questions to allow participants to share their experience of the management of
emergency evacuations by the government. The elderly, impoverished, and disabled
communities are considered to be part of the special needs populace and this study
examines their inclusion in the emergency management process. In order to include the
special needs populace, emergency planners must first be able to correctly identify the
populace and assess their needs to create more accessible evacuations (Cahalan & Renne,
2007).
For the purpose of this study, the special needs populace will be restricted to the
elderly, impoverished, and disabled communities. The elderly for the population are
those persons defined by Social Security Administration as old enough to receive benefits
which usually begin at age 65 (Social Security Administration, 2005). The impoverished
populace applies to persons & families who fall within and below the poverty lines
designated by the Department of Human Health and Services usually contingent upon the
number of people within household vs gross income (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2014). The disabled populace are those persons defined by the Social
Security Administration as one of the fourteen types of disability impairments (Social
Security Administration, 2003). Management officials of the government who participate
in emergency management functions from planning, funding, exercises, to execution will
also be assessed to determine both their interaction with the public and knowledge of

15. 12
current processes. Chapter one presents the background of the problem and discusses the
concerns of the special needs populace during emergency evacuations from the
perspective of the target populace and the government that is required to protect them.
Background
In recent disasters in the United States, the emergency management community
has proven that it is ill-equipped to handle large-scale evacuations of the populace out of
the threatened potential disaster area. At least 1,000 people lost their lives during
Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath, and it was later determined at least half of those
deaths were associated with those considered to be in the special needs population
(Hagen, 2006). Failing to plan for the special needs population continues to be an issue,
which has not been adequately addressed by the emergency management community as a
whole.
The decision to evacuate during or prior to an impending potential disaster is not
as simple a decision as one may assume. For families facing the possibility of an
emergency evacuation, the choice is rarely just a financial decision. Some of the people
within the potentially affected communities wanted to evacuate during many of the
storms, but simply could not afford to or did not have reliable transportation that could
get them out harm’s way. The focus of this research will be concentrated on the process
of the emergency management efforts to evacuate the special needs populace in order to
ascertain where policy gaps exists.
Problem Opportunity Statement
Proper emergency management planning efforts prior to a disaster can help to
mitigate the amount of severe injuries and deaths usually associated with large casualty

16. 13
potential (LCPs) events (Sena, & Michae, 2006). Available literature on the topic of
evacuating the special needs communities of the elderly, impoverished, and disabled
(EID) communities prove that these communities have long been an afterthought when it
comes to emergency planning. The EID communities that make up what is known as the
special needs populace must be accounted for during the planning and budgeting phases
of any emergency planning effort.
Since the decision to evacuate is often a complicated one, emergency managers
must take the necessary precautions to remove as much of the negative implications that
prevent the populace from evacuating as possible (Dash, & Gladwin, 2005). The use of
technology has been increasingly incorporated within the emergency management
industry in regards to notifying the public via the use of tools such as the Reverse 911
notification systems in addition to collaboration with various media outlets. In addition
to notifying the populace of its evacuation options, the government and emergency
managers have the authority to order, enforce, and assist their constituents in the
evacuation process. (Wilson, Temple, Milliron, Vazquez, Packard, & Rudy, 2007).
While reviewing literature pertaining to hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Sandy, the common
themes that emerged were the lack of proper planning for the elderly, impoverished, and
disabled communities as well as being able to account for the people who should
comprise this community.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to understand the factors that will either help or
hinder the leadership management of emergency evacuations that are needed to ensure
that the elderly, impoverished and disabled (EID) communities are not left behind during

17. 14
evacuations. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of each person to make proper
preparations ahead of a potential disaster; however, it is the responsibility of the local
government to inform the community of the resources that are available to them during
the evacuation process. Currently, capability and informational gaps exist between those
in the emergency planning community and EID community primarily because they are
not participants of the planning process.
The literature review presented in Chapter 2 examines the studies that have been
conducted following various disasters in the United States with respect to the EID and
other special needs communities. The literature review provides insight from both
government and non-government entities who have reviewed the policies and after action
reports in order to identify any opportunities for improvement that may exist. Each of the
studies hope to improve the management and planning activities of the emergency
response community in an effort to reduce the number of deaths of people who are unable
to evacuate prior to a disaster. Upon completion of this study, the reader should be able
to understand the factors related to the EID community that affect or hinder emergency
evacuations, identify where capability gaps exist, and the roles and responsibilities of all
stakeholders.
Research Question(s)
In this study, the researcher seeks to answer the question: How to improve the
management of emergency evacuations of the elderly, impoverished, and disabled
communities by the local levels of government? The purpose of this research question is
to examine the central phenomenon that allows for portions of the populace to be left
behind during emergency evacuations. In order to fully answer the research question,

18. 15
additional questions will have to be examined in regards to identifying the special needs
populace, their inclusion in the planning processes, expectations of all stakeholders, and
the need for oversight.
Proposition
The proposition is that the level of coordination and inclusion of the special needs
populace in the emergency planning process is directly affected by variables such as the
government’s ability to define and identify those who would comprise the special needs
populace. According to Burns, “the task of the qualitative methodologist is to capture
what people say and do as a product of how they interpret the complexity of their world,
to understand events from the viewpoints of the participants” (Burns, 2000, p. 11).
Through interaction with the participants, additional variables will emerge which will
have to be captured to support this study or researched for subsequent studies on the
topic.
Theoretical Perspectives
The theoretical framework of this study integrates the disaster planning and
management with identifying the special needs populace so that they are not left behind
during emergency evacuations in the future. The study focuses on identifying the
capability gaps that exist and other variables which hinder effective evacuations of the
special needs populace out of harms’ way as well as identifying the needs to support their
aftercare. Emergency managers must be able to identify and understand the needs of the
populace which includes but is not limited to transportation, medication, and logistical
support for their elderly, impoverished, and disabled constituents. The effectiveness of

19. 16
the emergency planning processes is improved when all stakeholders are included in the
planning process to ensure that their interests are protected and their needs will be met.
Utilizing the theoretical perspective of Max Weber’s model for bureaucracy
described in his book titled Economy and Society (1968), this study assesses the abilities
of those placed in positions of authority to fulfill their duties as required by the
qualifications of the position of which they serve. “The regular activities required for the
purposes of the bureaucratically governed structure are distributed in a fixed way as
official duties” (Weber, 1968, p. 956). Weber asserts that the ideal bureaucracy has
officials with expert training who are governed by rules of law or administrative
regulations which guide the performance of their duties (Weber, 1968).
The use of Fred Fielder’s Contingency Theory has also been employed because of
the management aspect which focuses on the interaction between the leader, the
employees, and the situation (Latham, n.d.). This study focuses on the management and
identification of the needs of EID community and the variables affecting their decision to
evacuate. The application of the Contingency Theory is ideal for this study because
provides the flexibility that is needed to adapt to the number of situational variables that
exists in the emergency management industry especially as it relates to the special needs
populace and emergency evacuations.
Assumptions/Biases
“Assumptions are so basic that, without them, the research problem itself could
not exist” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010, p. 62). The following assumptions are considerations
that were maintained during the research:

20. 17
1. The study assumes that the members of the elderly, impoverished, and
disabled communities want to be evacuated safely.
2. The study assumes that there are portions of the EID communities that will
require government assistance to evacuate when the order is given.
3. A portion of the populace will refuse to evacuate based off of their assessment
of the threat
4. The researcher assumes that participants of the study will provide an accurate
account of their experiences with their local governments and the emergency
evacuations process.
5. Responses from all participants will include the elderly, impoverished, and
disabled populace and emergency managers from the local government.
6. The study will have a minimum of fifteen (15) completed interviews from
participants in the states of Mississippi and Louisiana.
Significance of the Study
This study will have an immediate impact on the emergency management
community by helping to identify where the opportunities for improvement exist in
regards to evacuating the special needs population. The literature has identified planning
and capability gaps which emergency managers will be able to mitigate by applying the
lessons learned to improve their planning and overall capabilities. Poor planning and
past failures have caused the populace to lose confidence that their local leaders will be
able to protect them prior to, during, and in the aftermath of a disaster.

21. 18
Delimitations
According to Roberts (2010), delimitations clarify the boundaries of the study by
explaining to the reader “what will be included and what will be left out” (p. 138). The
following delimitations define the boundaries of this study:
1. The participants will reside in the states of Louisiana or Mississippi.
2. Participants will fit the requirements of one of the special needs populations
defined by this research (elderly, impoverished, disabled, or emergency
management official).
3. Participants will have experiential knowledge of emergency evacuations in
response to a disaster.
Limitations
Limitations are factors in the study that are outside of the control of the researcher
“that may affect the results of the study or how the results are interpreted” (Baron, 2009,
p.4). Limitations “are the constraints on generalizability and utility of findings that are
the result of the ways in which you chose to design the study and/or the method used to
establish internal and external validity” (University of Southern California, 2014, para.
1). The following limitations anticipated to have an impact on this study are:
1. The survey respondents’ familiarity with the topic may skew the data toward
their personal beliefs rather than remaining fact based.
2. Researcher bias and perceptual misrepresentations will have to be managed so
that the focus remains on the data collected.
3. The time constraint within the study must be completed.

22. 19
4. Access to some participants may be limited dependent upon current living or
work conditions.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions are of terms that will be used throughout the text of this
study. The definitions also provide clarity on terms that have been slightly adjusted for
the purpose of this research:
The Department of Homeland Security will be abbreviated as DHS within the
body of the text.
The elderly for the population are those persons defined by Social Security
Administration as old enough to receive benefits which usually begin at age 65 (Social
Security Administration, 2005).
The Federal Emergency Management Agency is commonly referred to as FEMA
within the emergency management community and within the context of this study.
The impoverished populace applies to persons & families who fall within and
below the poverty lines designated by the Department of Human Health and Services
usually contingent upon the number of people within household vs gross income (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2014).
The disabled populace are those persons defined by the Social Security
Administration as one of the fourteen types of disability impairments (Social Security
Administration, 2003).
Management officials of the government who participate in emergency
management functions from planning, funding, exercises, to execution will also be

23. 20
assessed to determine both their interaction with the public and knowledge of current
processes.
The term special needs is comprised of the elderly, impoverished, and disabled
(EID) communities and will be used interchangeably with EID.
General Overview of the Research Design
The research design for this qualitative study will employ a phenomenological
approach. The population will include portions of the elderly, impoverished, and
disabled (EID) communities as well as emergency management personnel. The
population will consist of volunteer participants from the states of Mississippi and
Louisiana who have acknowledged that they have either participated in an emergency
evacuation or have first-hand knowledge of someone who has (i.e., a relative, patient).
Participants will be interviewed utilizing open-ended questions that provide participants
the opportunity to share narratives and perceptions of their experiences within their
respective role during an emergency evacuation.
Summary of Chapter One
In chapter one, the reader is provided with an overview of the intended study and
background on the subject matter. The purpose of this study has been identified as how
to improve the management of the elderly, impoverished, and disabled communities
during disasters to ensure that no one is left behind. This chapter also addressed the
assumptions, limitations, and delimitations that will guide this phenomenological study
with the ultimate purpose of saving lives through inclusion of the planning process.

24. 21
Organization of Proposal
Chapter one provided a basic introduction on the subject of the dissertation and
the purpose of the study. Chapter two examines the literature that has been collected on
the topic and analyzed by the researcher as to its applicability on the subject matter.
Chapter three provides the reader with an explanation of the research design, population,
sampling procedures, and information on data collection. Chapter four presents the data
and codifies the information so that the researcher is able to capture emerging themes
from the research. Chapter five provides the reader with a conclusion that the researcher
has drawn from his analysis of the data presented in chapter four.

25. 22
CHAPTER TWO
In the emergency management community, planning is one of the most vital roles
that is used to protect the populace from imposing threats. Emergency evacuations are
important factors and tools for emergency planners to use to get the populace out of
harm’s way. While the decision to evacuate is never an easy one, the populace should
heed to the advice of the emergency management community when the order is given.
Some people will not be able to comply with the recommendation to evacuate. This
literature review will examine the portions of the special needs communities that the
government has repeatedly failed to adequately account for in the planning and execution
of an emergency evacuation.
Theories of Emergency Evacuations and the Special Needs Community
A portion of the special needs community that is the focus of this research is the
elderly, impoverished, and disabled populations whom are often neglected due to lack of
planning or budgeting. This literature review will analyze the sources that examine how
the emergency management community plan for the elderly, impoverished, and disabled
(EID) communities in regards to emergency evacuations in preparation of the potential
threat of a hurricane or other disaster. Most of the information that supports the
emergency evacuation theme is primarily focused on evacuating the populace out the
impact area of a hurricane, but should be applicable to other threats.
Affected Populace
In the article written by Petrolia and Bhattacharjee (2010), the authors discuss the
decision to evacuate from the citizen perspective. The article also discusses how being
part of the EID community plays a role in the decision-making process of the common

26. 23
citizen. Although the article focuses more on the personal mental aspect of the decision-
making process, it provides the insight that emergency management planners will have to
plan and mitigate for in their evacuation plans.
Fairchild, Colgrove, and Jones (2006) discuss in the article titled “The Challenge
of Mandatory Evacuation: Providing For and Deciding For” that it is the government
responsibility to provide for and possibly decide what is best for the people. According
to this article, it is the obligation of the government to trigger and provide the resources
to help the populace evacuate even if they are reluctant or hesitant to evacuate. The
article questions the powers of the government to make decisions on behalf of the people
and whether those who disobey should incur penalties for not adhering to the evacuation
order.
The National Study on Carless and Special Needs Evacuation Planning: A
Literature Review (Renne, Sanchez, & Litman, 2008) gives vital insight into the
obstacles that emergency planners and the government face by reviewing information and
the capability gaps that exist within this topic. “The findings from this study highlight
issues faced by government and non-profit agencies as they plan for the needs and
concerns of carless and special needs populations” (Renne et al., 2008, p. 110). This
review argues that that there are many gaps in the planning process that do not include
the special needs communities. It is a literature review of evacuation reports on five
cities from various regions of the country.
In the report titled Transportation – Disadvantaged Populations: Actions Needed
to Clarify Responsibilities and Increase Preparedness for Evacuations (2006), details
some of the resources that are available to the state and local governments should their

27. 24
resources become overwhelmed. If the state and local resources become overloaded, the
federal government will be able to provide evacuation assistance for transportation-
disadvantaged and other populations. This report is yet another source that supports the
theory of this research by discussing the capability gaps that exists in regards to planning
for the special needs communities for emergency evacuations.
Wagner (2006) discusses the need to plan for the disabled communities in the
article titled Disaster Planning for the Disabled. As a portion of what is considered part
of the special needs populace with respect to this research, planning for the disabled
community requires enormous amounts of logistical support to ensure that the needs of
the people can be met during a disaster. Wagner’s study utilizes computer modeling to
try to predict how the populace will react during an emergency with hopes of making
public facilities accessible and safer for everyone.
Authors Evangelos Kaisar, Linda Hess, and Alicia Palomo (2012) discuss the
importance of having evacuation plans in place and ready for implementation should the
special needs populace need to evacuate. The primary focus of their research examines
how the special needs populations could be evacuated using public transportation by
using a simulation model to determine the optimum locations for evacuation bus stops.
Although this research focuses more on the individuals that would not be able to make it
to the evacuation bus stops, the article is still relevant, because it discusses some of the
barriers that emergency planners will have to overcome when planning to transport
evacuees.
While there is no specific definition for the term “special needs,” it is used in
reference to people with disabilities who are incapable of fully caring for themselves.

28. 25
The United States Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT) provides one of the most
thorough and comprehensive planning guides that covers each of the populations who are
the focus of this research. The U.S. DOT report is titled Evacuating Populations with
Special Needs: Routes to Effective Evacuation Planning Primer attempts to ensure that
planners include everyone within the special needs community. Most of the information
inside of the report can be used by emergency planners as they develop a plan to support
their special needs populations.
The U.S. DOT report and similar reports provide the framework and variable risks
assessments, none of the sources indicate where the accountability should begin to ensure
that the emergency management community include these suggestions or account for
their special needs populations in other ways. Without accountability or a regulated
requirement, emergency managers are not forced to implement, improve, or include the
special needs communities in their plans. If local, state, and federal governments created
regulatory requirement, the emergency management community would be forced to
comply or be fined.
Elderly
For the purpose of this study, the elderly population consists of persons that are
sixty-five years of age and older. When planning for the elderly, management will have
to prepare for and consider a large amount of variables that will affect the elderly
population’s ability to evacuate. More than eighty percent of the elderly population will
have at least one chronic illness as well as suffer from mobility or other limitations that
will make it more difficult to plan for and evacuate (Hoffman, 2009). The elderly
population may also have transportation issues that may hinder them from being able to

29. 26
make it to the evacuation locations. Without proper care in place at the evacuation
shelters, the health of the elderly will likely deteriorate “because of poor nutrition,
extreme temperatures, exposure to infection, interruptions in medical treatment, and
emotional distress” (Hoffman, 2009, p. 1501).
Impoverished
Hoffman (2009) states that there are ethical implications that require the
government to provide for the disadvantaged members of society. Since the
disadvantaged will likely suffer more harm during disasters because of poverty,
emergency planners and authorities should ensure that resources are distributed in a
manner that maximizes benefits for those who need it most (Hoffman, 2009). Survey
studies conducted following Hurricane Katrina show that the most common factors that
prevent the impoverished population from evacuating is the transportation or misjudging
the storm’s danger (Eisenman, Cordasco, Asch, Golden, & Glik, 2007).
The 2006 Government Accountability Office report GAO-07-44 examines where
the state and local governments face challenges in identifying, locating, and providing for
transportation for the disadvantaged populations. The report also identifies the capability
gaps that exist in regards to planning, training, and conducting exercises that included
and target this portion of the populace. While the federal law requires both the state and
local governments to incorporate the special needs population in its planning processes,
there is no accountability that ensures that this happens (GAO, 2006). Although
identified in GAO-07-44, this statement is still true today as no formal government
requirement is currently in existence.

30. 27
Disabled
The Social Security Administration lists twelve types of disability impairments
that it recognizes as eligible for benefits after an evaluation. While it is virtually
impossible to account for every type of disability during the emergency planning process,
managers must at least attempt to implement basic communication tools to ensure
information is passed to those who need it most. Getting information to the populace
with hearing or visual disabilities will require personnel capable of using sign language,
caretakers for the blind, and interpreters to overcome some of the language barriers.
There are other considerations which must be taken into account such as
transportation, accessibility, medical triage, and mental disabilities. Transportation must
be made accessible for those who are wheelchair-bound and shelter locations must have
accessible entrances and other amenities compliant with the American Disabilities Act
(ADA). Reports from the National Council on Disability state that individuals were
refused entrance to shelters or were housed in inappropriate conditions resulting in other
medical problems. In regards to mental disabilities, response personnel must be able to
determine if they are dealing with complications from the disability or the disaster
(Hoffman, 2009).
Management
According to Donahue and Tuohy (2006), the emergency management
community’s tendency to repeat errors of the past. The authors make the assertion that
the same lessons are identified again and again so much so that responders can practically
predict where the problems will arise during an actual incident (Donahue & Tuohy,
2006). It is claims of this nature that is the basis for this research by examining the data

31. 28
and communication gaps that exist in the emergency management community. The
emergency management community continues to repeat the same errors from the past
despite the amount of time and money that the government and its partners have spent to
evaluate the response failures to recent disasters.
Once the emergency management community is able to determine where
problems exist, it should be able to correct their deficiencies in order to keep from
repeating mistakes from the past. While the recognition of the problems has been
repeated in study after study, the federal and local governments have not implemented
protocols that would ensure accountability within the respective emergency planning
processes which could be done via the use of an audit system. Donahue and Tuohy
(2006) claim that there is not enough resources available at the local levels of government
in order to meet the federal vision.
There may be legal boundaries that exist which prevent the federal government
from managing how the local governments operate. The federal government could make
part of the requirement to receive funding is to implement the lessons learned into the
standing operating procedures following a catastrophe. The assertion that the emergency
management community continues to repeat past failures is supported by articles that
discuss the exact problems from more than a decade ago that still plague the planning and
response activities of today. Erik Auf der Heide explains that part of the reason for
repeated failures is that people fail to learn from mistakes from others and even their own
previously noted deficiencies (Auf der Heide, 1989).
The publication Narcotics Anonymous: World Service Conference Literature
Rita Mae Brown stated that “insanity is doing the same thing repeatedly and expecting

32. 29
different results” (Brown, 1981, p. 11). Although the legal definition of insanity in
today’s day and age is more in reference to a mental disorder, the narcotics anonymous
statement is the essence of the realm where the emergency management community and
the federal government continue to operate. It is obvious that the current system is in
disrepair and the emergency management community’s inability to adapt and implement
lessons learned leaves the populace destined to endure another catastrophe coupled with
substandard planning and response capabilities.
There is an unlimited amount of information of studies on lessons learned from
disasters throughout the world; however, none investigate the root of the problem. Most
of the articles and sources found for this research study have been relegated to simply
blaming politicians and budget constraints as the federal government continues to
supplement the improvement of the emergency management community with grants and
training. The federal government audits funding issued as grant money, but fails to
provide oversight to ensure that the findings from studies and lessons learned are
implemented into a government directive that could be audited.
The foundation of any successful organization has the right personnel with the
right skills performing the right job. In order for the emergency management community
to improve how it operates to provide the necessary services to its constituents, the
personnel must be able to communicate and form a cohesive unit of entities that makeup
the emergency response community can operate efficiently and effectively. Following a
disaster, emergency management personnel initiate procedures from a Continuity of
Operations Plan also known as a COOP. Within each COOP, agencies are responsible

33. 30
for identifying their essential functions under the guidance of the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) (Koontz, 2004).
The Government Accounting Office determined that although FEMA provided
guidance for the continuity of operations plans for federal agencies; however, an
assessment of thirty-four plans for compliance proves that the requirement are not seen as
priorities and were not implemented (Koontz, 2004). The presumption is that if FEMA
cannot provide proper guidance and oversight of its fellow federal agencies then how it
will provide oversight on the state and local levels of government (Koontz, 2004). The
GAO-04-638T report also found that FEMA has failed to provide adequate oversight as
far back as 1999 which subsequent studies have determined was still true in 2004. It is
ironic that the inability to enforce the regulations in 2004 eventually led to failures visible
on the world stage in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Linda Koontz followed up her 2004 GAO report with a 2005 report that asserts
that FEMA continues to fall short on their obligations although she claims there had been
some improvements (Koontz, 2005). Once the executive branch determines the best
ways to govern itself, hopefully it will apply the same principles into forcing the lower
levels of government into compliance. According to Koontz (2005), FEMA planned to
improve oversight via the use of an online readiness reporting system and by conducting
interagency exercises. The report does not cover what FEMA plans to do when agencies
fail to meet their requirements for the continuity of operation plans. In two reports, the
author has been able to diagnose and pinpoint where the capability gaps were causing the
failures to occur and offered suggestions on how to mitigate the existing failures.

34. 31
Each of Linda Koontz’s three studies (Koontz, 2004; Koontz, 2005; Koontz,
2007) examine the level of preparedness all of the federal agencies by determining if the
required Continuity of Operations Plans are in place. This report focuses on an exercise
between eight government agencies and their abilities to respond to disasters. Since the
Federal Preparedness Circular 65 now requires an annual exercise following hurricanes
Katrina, Rita, and Wilma, the author thought that this would be the best opportunity to
review the agencies processes to see if they had improved since her last audit.
Although Koontz (2007) had received prior approval from the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS) to observe the exercise, once the exercise started she was
blocked from being able to review their processes in real time. This lack of transparency
gives the appearance that DHS was unprepared to have another observation from Koontz.
The author was not allowed to review the exercise in real time but later reviewed the
documents from the exercise. Koontz found there was no documentation to support the
processes that the agencies claim that they conducted. The collaboration between the
government and private industry must be a wholehearted collaborative effort with full
transparency into the functions of the other in order to be successful.
While the National Response Framework (NRF) essentially classifies all
emergencies as local, it works in conjunction with the National Incident Management
System (NIMS). Authors McGuire and Schneck (2010) state that the United States
would still be unable to respond adequately to another Hurricane Katrina in 2020 if it
does not change how the government at all levels manage how it prepares and responds
to emerging threats. The authors recommend that the answer is issue-focused
management also referenced as strategic issues management which address “the primary

35. 32
strategic concerns of an organization or organizational system” (McGuire, & Schneck,
2010, p. 203).
In addition to issue-focused management, externally oriented management
examines and utilize resources that are outside of not only the organization but the region
as well. It is the responsibility of the local emergency managers to ensure that they
identify entities that can support their jurisdiction during all phases of emergency
preparedness and response. Creating partnerships outside of the local jurisdiction is vital
because rarely does an emergency event not impact the surrounding communities and
jurisdictions. Since emergency managers rely on collaborative efforts of others to help
prepare, respond to, and mitigate the effects of potential threats, the managers must learn
to become facilitators of vice dictating how others should perform their duties (McGuire,
& Schneck, 2010).
Interoperability
“Cross-jurisdictional issues and subsequent forms of collaboration were defining
differences between the cities” (Renne, Jenkins, Sanchez, & Peterson, 2008, p. 7) utilized
in The National Study on Carless and Special Needs Evacuation Planning: Government
and Non-Profit Focus Group Results. It is important that agencies participating in any
aspect of emergency planning and response be able to communicate with each other
efficiently and effectively. This study is important because it utilizes focus groups
consisting of government officials and non-profit organizations and details some of the
challenges that they face when attempting to work with other agencies during the
planning and evacuation process.

36. 33
Locations that have been successful in evacuating portions of the special needs
population have done so through planning at all levels of government, requiring citizens
to register, including social service providers, and regularly scheduled exercises to test
the coordination between agencies (Reese, 2006). Once emergency evacuation plans and
responsibilities have been published, the processes must be tested to ensure
interoperability between agencies occurs as directed within the plan. Although no
requirement to test the plans exist, there have been recommendations to have the
Department of Homeland Security require states to conduct evacuation planning and
exercises as conditions to receiving Homeland Security grants.
Accountability
There have been numerous Government Accountability Office reports which
recommend accountability in order to receive Homeland Security grants by conducting
emergency management planning and exercises. Government Accountability Office
Report 06-790T (2006) focused primarily on hospital and nursing home administrations,
and came to the same conclusions on accountability as the Congressional Research
Service Reports for the 109th
Congress and 110th
Congress titled the State and Urban
Area Homeland Security Plans and Exercises. Without accountability, the requirement to
improve local emergency evacuation plans and procedures goes unchecked and
improvements either never occur or are never tested.
The CRS Report for the 109th
Congress assesses whether the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS) should require specific activities to be included in local
homeland security plans as well as conduct exercises. States and local governments
receiving assistance from the Urban Area Security Initiative were required to provide

37. 34
their homeland security strategy. The conditions of the assistance required that the
strategy address issues such as interoperability, first responder equipment, and weapons
of mass destruction response capabilities. The requirement to create and evaluate plans at
the local levels of government are clear; however, DHS does not certify or issue
accreditation to ensure that states are able to respond to large casualty potential (LCP)
events (Reese, 2006).
In the subsequent 110th
Congress a year later, the CRS Report re-examines the
same questions from the previous year while raising another. The new reports ask
whether DHS should certify state and urban area emergency operations and homeland
security plans as a condition of assistance. In addition to the Urban Area Security
Initiative, states were also directed to develop Capability Enhancement Plans to help
them achieve the National Preparedness Goal. States are allowed to self-certify their
emergency management plans via the Emergency Management Accreditation Program
(EMAP) which leaves the nation vulnerable because the process is voluntary and
unverified by DHS (Reese, 2007). While requiring states to certify their processes and
procedures is a great start, DHS fails to provide the oversight that will hold states and
local governments accountable for failing to meet the requirements within the National
Response Framework. In Fiscal Year 2014, the Department of Homeland Security finally
headed to the recommendations from the Government Accountability Office by
implementing a project-level grant applications to provide oversight on how grantees
intend to utilize preparedness grant funds (DHS, 2014).

38. 35
Oversight
The Department of Homeland Security has required state and local governments
to assess their emergency evacuation plans in order to receive grant funding since fiscal
year 2006. The 109th
Congress initially intended for the Department of Homeland
Security to form assessment teams consisting of state and local emergency management
personnel and homeland security personnel. The assessment teams would have been
required to visit each state and urban area to review their respective homeland security
plans which includes their evacuation plans in order to determine if there are any
opportunities for improvement and to provide assistance where necessary (Reese, 2006).
The National Preparedness Goal recommends that individual and community
preparedness efforts should both contribute to as well as benefit from a national
preparedness plan. In what it deems a “whole community” effort, the National
Preparedness Goal explicitly states that any plan should include children, individuals with
disabilities, and others with access and functions needs, diverse communities, and non-
native English speakers (DHS, 2011). While the Department of Homeland Security
directs inclusion of the special needs population into the emergency planning process in
the National Preparedness Goal, it fails to state how it will enforce this requirement on
state and local governments.
According to the Guide for All-Hazard Emergency Operations Planning by the
Federal Emergency Management Agency, the elected leadership within each jurisdiction
is legally responsible for ensuring that it has taken appropriate actions to protect both
people and property from emergencies and disasters (FEMA, 1996). The problem is not
that the Federal Emergency Management Agency has attempted to place responsibility on

39. 36
the local jurisdictions but rather that it does not have any authority or ability to hold any
of them accountable. The directives that drive emergency management policy are often
issued by the federal government, states are responsible for the oversight of Homeland
Security functions within their state as well as develop and assess their own preparedness
capability requirements. Because states and local jurisdictions develop their own
capability requirements, it would be too difficult for FEMA to assess because a
quantitative standard to assess and compare across multiple states does not exist (GAO,
2013).
Since the federal government has not yet implemented an oversight plan to
manage emergency preparedness plans for state and local governments, local planners
must make an effort to ensure that the special needs population are included in their
tested and vetted plans. The lack of a federal oversight plan does not alleviate the need to
assess evacuation plans in order to determine where capability and vulnerability gaps
exist. In lieu of providing direct oversight of local and state government emergency
preparedness planning efforts, the federal government does provide a number of tools and
training that emergency planners must take advantage of for the betterment of the
populace that they serve.
Planning
The federal government oversight of emergency evacuation plans at the local
levels of government is limited and ineffective. Local government planners must gather
information about the special needs populations utilizing survey instruments adequately
to determine the needs of their special needs population. It is during the planning phase
that the baseline for the needs are established such as disabilities, medication needs,

40. 37
language barriers, and access to evacuation information. When gathering data about the
special needs populace, the emergency management planners must ensure that they have
an adequate sample size to ensure the statistical validity of the surveys they have
conducted (Zhao, Xing, Yang, Lu, & Chung, 2010).
By coordinating with public transportation, emergency management planners
should be able to create plans that utilize the local transportation fleet as well as
determine the logistics of providing these services to the populace. Another
responsibility of the emergency planner is to find ways to encourage the populace to
evacuate when necessary, as well as assist those who are not able to leave once the order
is given. Early coordination with the local community will help to identify both the
needs of the population and the support that is needed to evacuate them to safety.
The Department of Health and Human Services recommends incorporating the
special needs populace into the planning process. Emergency preparedness plans often
only focus on the non-special needs portion of the populace, and therefore do not address
the transitional needs of the special needs populace prior to and recovering from a
disaster. A recurring theme that continues to plague the emergency management
community again presents itself in this arena, because the lack of oversight and internal
assessments leave special needs population unsure about whether they have been
adequately incorporated in the emergency management plans (Zhao et al, 2010).
Once the special needs populations have been added to the emergency plans, it is
vital to test those plans via the use of exercises to measure their effectiveness. Three
levels of exercises to test plans are tabletop, functional, and full-scale. Tabletop exercises
test plans by conducting a verbal walk through of scenarios in order to determine if there

41. 38
are any opportunities for improvement. Functional exercises go a step beyond the
tabletop exercises by activating emergency operation centers to test the management and
communication systems and information sharing. Functional exercises also require the
involvement by all local, federal, state, businesses, and relief organizations that use
exercises to iron out communication issues amongst each of the stakeholders (Zhao et al,
2010). A full-scale exercise puts into motion every aspect of an emergency response plan
where each phase is carried out as if responding to an actual event. The purpose of these
exercises are to verify that plans will be sufficient to provide for the needs of the
populace during a real world event.
After identifying and locating the special needs populace, incorporating and
testing plans, the emergency managers must involve the community further to identify
those who would need evacuation assistance. The local government should also establish
a public hotline or website to disseminate information to the populace of ways they can
help their friends and neighbors. Platte County (Missouri) has created a Neighbor-To-
Neighbor (N2N) network which encourages the citizens of the county to help to organize
the community, provide input on preparedness issues, and assist neighbors to help them
evacuate safely (Ringel, Chandra, Williams, Ricci, Felton, Adamson, Weden, & Huang,
2009).
Communication
Another barrier that emergency managers face is in the realm of communications
in regards to ensuring that everyone is contacted and can understand the messages. The
Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEP) research was conducted to
determine the potential risks to the local populace in the event of a chemical agent

42. 39
release. “The CSEP program recommends translating public information materials if one
percent of a community speaks another language” (Sorensen, 2006, p. 11). The
information that was found during this research was substantiated following Hurricane
Katrina as many of the issues which face the special needs community during
evacuations was brought to the forefront of America’s attention.
Warning and evacuation orders are usually transmitted to the public via a linear
communication system which determines and disseminates information from one
stakeholder to the next. If the threats are considered viable, the warnings are officially
transmitted to the public with the expectation that the populace will respond to the
official warnings. While the linear system has been a part of the American warning
process for more than fifty years, it is time to evaluate other ways to contact the populace
implementing some of the significant cultural and technological tools such as social
media to help disseminate warnings to the masses (Sorensen, & Vogt, 2006).
First and follow on emergency responders must be able to effectively
communicate with each other which is known as interoperability. Interoperability
theoretically should allow for emergency responders and managers to seamlessly interact
with one another to reduce the amount of confusion that usually accompanies response to
a large casualty potential (LCP) event. The effort to ensure that the emergency
management community can integrate effectively begins with the planning and budgeting
phases of response plans (Donahue, 2006). Planning for interoperability is the foundation
for effective response, and exercises are vital tools that help to validate the requirement
before an event occurs.

43. 40
Communication must reach all intended stakeholders in order to be successful
during emergency evacuations. Emergency managers must communicate with the
community and the community must inform the local government of their needs by
correctly filling out census or other surveys used to collect information on the populace.
Community-based organizations (CBOs) can help close the data gap that exists between
populace and the emergency planners. Communication between the emergency
management community and the populace must be accessible and useful (Nick, Savioa,
Elqura, Crowther, Cohen, Leary, Wright, Auerbach, Koh, & 2009).
Historical Review of Emergency Evacuations
There have been both natural and man-made disasters in recent years, and none
have required as extensive emergency evacuations within the United States as the 2005
Gulf Coast hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Almost 100,000 residents of Greater New
Orleans did not evacuate before Katrina made landfall, because they fell into one of the
special needs categories defined by this research. “In-depth investigations of evacuation
decisions are needed to understand why impoverished, urban, minority communities may
be less likely to evacuate” (Eisenman et al, 2007, p. 1) which should also include both the
elderly and disabled communities.
History and research has proven that the pre-event planning phase are critical
junctures where emergency planners must set the guidelines that help incorporate the
special needs community into the planning, training, and facilitation efforts for
emergency evacuations (Rowland, White, Fox, & Rooney, 2007). In order for the
emergency planners to effectively plan for a community, they must become familiar with
the people in the area to gain an understanding of their needs. One way to achieve this is

44. 41
by conducting door to door surveys or by creating a registry that will help emergency
planners identify the portion of the populace that may be in need of assistance during an
evacuation.
Gathering historical data on how communities have coped with disasters in the
past provides insight into how they may react during future events. The evacuation of 1.2
million people from New Orleans in during 2007 as Hurricane Isaac made its approach
was seen as one of the most successful in history (Renne, Sanchez, Jenkins, & Peterson,
2014). The evacuation for Hurricane Isaac was one of the most unsuccessful evacuations
for those in the carless and special needs communities (Renne et al, 2014). “Evacuating
carless and special needs populations requires collaboration of various stakeholders,
including transportation planners, emergency managers, health-care providers, and
others” (Renne et al, 2014, p. 1).
Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Mayor Michael Bloomberg of New York
City proposed the use of a registry that would help emergency responders find people
who would most likely need aid during an emergency evacuation. The problem is that
the mayor never followed through on his recommendation (Chavkin, 2013). When
Hurricane Sandy made landfall in the New York and New Jersey coastlines, numerous
lives were lost that could have been saved had the registry been in place. Half of the
forty-three New Yorkers who died from the storm were elderly residents who had been in
the mandatory evacuation zones without emergency responders’ knowledge (Chavkin,
2013).
The use of registries continues to gain attention in the emergency management
community; however, little is being done to put these registries into action. Failures to

45. 42
include the use of registries in the planning process leaves the special needs communities
at risk. While there are no federal, state, or local laws requiring registries, it should at
least be considered as best management procedures. Emergency planners have long
recognized that the need is there, but no federal organization has taken on the job of
putting together a registry. In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, the director of the
National Center for Disaster Preparedness Dr. Irwin Redlener states that having a robust
registry is the kind of thing that could save lives (Chavkin, 2013).
Current Issues of Emergency Evacuations
“Many states, especially those in coastal areas prone to weather emergencies,
offer Special Needs Shelters (SNSs) to care for people with severe medical needs during
a disaster” (Benson, 2013, p. 11). While these shelters provide a foundation for special
needs population during emergency evacuations, they fall short in fully providing for the
needs of the people that actually make it to the shelter. The shelters are generally staffed
by medical personnel who do not have experience with working with the special needs
populace. Special Needs Shelters are usually run the state’s health department and are
not designed to handle hospital residents.
Most SNSs require potential residents to register in advance of a disaster and
sometimes provide transportation to the shelter. Most of the people that will need to
utilize an SNS will not have access to transportation that should be determined during the
registration process. The information gathered in the registration process would help to
determine the transportation needs of those who register; however, this capability is
further minimized when shelters do not offer transportation. Inhabitants of the SNSs are
required to provide their own medication and other necessities because the facilities

46. 43
chosen are often in schools or public buildings with accessibility, shower, and privacy
limitations. It is important to note that SNSs should be considered a last resort for people
who have no transportation or other means to evacuate outside of a potential disaster area
(Benson, 2013).
According to the 2007 U.S. Census, there were more than 70.6 million adults age
55 or older. There are at least thirteen million people in the United States that are age
fifty or older who say that they will need help to evacuate. Some of these adults will also
have problems voicing their needs if they “become separated from their families or
caregivers during a disaster” (Manpower, 2012, p. 1). Although the U.S. Census
quantitatively recognized how many elderly adults may need assistance during an
evacuation, there does not seem to be a sense of urgency by any level of government to
create the kind of registry that could potentially save the lives of millions of special needs
populace. “Florida was the first state to develop special needs registries after Hurricane
Andrew revealed an elderly population grossly underprepared for disaster” (Waterman,
2011, p. 1).
During a 2010 Congressional hearing, it was recommended that each region
should have a disability coordinator similar to a position created in FEMA by the Post-
Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006. During her testimony, Marcie
Roth (2010) attempted to discredit the use of the term “special-needs” because she
believes that it leads to segregation and unequal services for people with disabilities.
The term special needs incorporates more of the populace than the “access and functional
needs” term which Marcie Roth recommends should be used instead (GPO, 2010).

47. 44
Defining the special needs populace continues to be a dilemma more than nine years
following the disastrous preparation and response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
Gaps in Research
The special needs community faces a number of challenges when tasked with the
difficult decision to evacuate prior to an impending natural disaster or after a man-made
disaster. Emergency planners are responsible for ensuring that the special needs
populace is included in the planning and execution of the special needs populace during
emergency evacuations. Recent disasters have proven that the special needs populace has
not been included in the planning phase as thoroughly as they should have been which
has left them vulnerable whenever a disaster warrants an evacuation.
Emergency planners have also had trouble defining the portion of the populace
that would fit the designation as special needs. Without a firm definition, it is impossible
to estimate the needs of the special needs populace prior to or during an evacuation.
Each level of government must work together to define the population and coordinate
resources to ensure that the special needs population is not left behind and have adequate
accommodations at each evacuation location. Once the special needs population has been
defined, emergency managers must then locate the portion of the populace that fit within
the definition.
Some of the primary resources needed to conduct an effective evacuation include
transportation and logistical support, medical support (doctors, nurses, medications,
oxygen, etc.), handicapped accessibility options, dining, showering, and sleeping
accommodations. When evacuating the special needs populace, logistical support is a
vital pillar which must be thoroughly planned and executed. Emergency planners must

48. 45
ensure that they have redundancy capabilities in regards to location and other support
functions. Mutual aid agreements and logistical contracts should be in place during the
planning phase so that time and focus is not lost during an evacuation.
The federal government has created numerous acts, laws, and grants to help state
and local governments improve their emergency management activities. According to
the literature, there appears to be a flaw in the system in regards to oversight or plan by
the federal government to ensure that the state and local governments are meeting the
requirement. The federal government allows local levels of government to self-certify
that they are meeting the National Incident Management System (NIMS) requirements
utilizing an honor system that continues to place the populace at risk in lieu hard
requirements for emergency managers to plan for and include the special needs populace
(DHS, 2008). Self-certification is a is absent of a system of checks and balances which
would hold local and state governments accountable should they fail to meet the
requirements or falsify information to claim they have met the requirement when they
have not.
The use of registries is an idea that has been identified by a number of entities as a
best management practice; however, no entity has followed through or implemented a
national registry that would help identify people who may need assistance during an
evacuation. The registry would also help to identify the type of help needed, medical
diagnosis, medication, and the number of people in the household that would accompany
the special needs participant. By having an idea of what the populace needs, emergency
planners would be able to coordinate the logistical needs of the populace in order to
coordinate and save as many citizens as possible.

49. 46
Variables
Some states and local agencies have taken the initiative to create local registries to
help them identify and prepare for the evacuation of the special needs populace. Without
any hard requirements, the states that have begun to implement registries are starting the
see some success in the registration process. Lessons learned from these states could
help close the knowledge gap that is needed to implement a local or national registry that
could lead to the creation of a network where resources could be consolidated and mutual
aid agreements formed. Emergency planners must be given the authority and resources
to move forward with a task as daunting as this.
Regardless of the amount of resources or registries that are in place, there will
always be people within the evacuation area who have been designated as special needs
who may still refuse to evacuate (Bohannon, 2011). Variables like these make the
evacuation process more difficult and delays the response to those willing to evacuate if
afforded the opportunity and the resources to do so. The use of a registry would be
voluntary by the citizens; however, contact must be made during an evacuation to verify
whether the citizens are aware of their options. The contact and verification process
would remove any of the liability on the government from those claiming they were
involuntarily left behind while also giving the citizen another opportunity to reconsider
their decision.
Communication and information dissemination are the most important variables
during an emergency evacuation. Citizens need to be made aware of the actions needed
to evacuate on their own or as part of the special needs assisted evacuation. Without
proper and timely dissemination of information, chaos would ensue similar to the

50. 47
aftermath to Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. The lack of information or timely
dissemination causes fear in the minds of the people who then begin to feel as if the
government has abandoned them. Planning for these variables will help to mitigate any
mass confusion and the likelihood of that the populace will be left unprotected for lack of
due diligence by those elected and hired to protect them.
Emergency planners must be prepared for the unseen threat and be able to
mitigate it should the threat had not been accounted for in their plans. Whether the threat
is natural or man-made, planners should plan for future threats from the perspective of
the threat while employing a mentality that thinks as if there is no proverbial box.
Planners are limited only by their imagination that is a variable that can be improved if
tactics are shared with other planners in the emergency management community. A
thorough planning phase with community inclusion would help to take the guesswork out
of the process and provide managers with information that they may not have been privy
to before.
When the decision has been made to evacuate the populace and the order has been
issued, there will be individuals who may refuse to adhere to the order. According to
Fairchild, Colgrove, and Jones, the “Government has an obligation not only to help
people in an emergency but also to take decisive, although strictly limited, steps to
remove them from harm’s way” (2006, p. 1). Mandatory evacuation enforcement should
not include the use of physical force, but should employ the least intrusive strategy as a
means of enforcing the order. Prior to Katrina making landfall in Louisiana, sheriff’s
deputies went house to house in low-lying parishes to warn residents of the need to
evacuate as well identify those still needing assistance (Fairchild et al, 2006). Another

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tool that emergency management could employ is the use of penalties by holding citizens
liable for the costs of rescue efforts for refusing to follow the evacuation order (Fairchild
et al, 2006).
Recommendation
The “official guidance on resource planning for people with a medical
dependency is virtually non-existent” (Risoe, Schlegelmilch, & Paturas, 2013, p. 4).
Since one of the primary capability gaps that emergency managers face is the inability to
define and locate the special needs population, it would be beneficial to create a registry
of people who fit into this section of populace. Next step would be to determine what
their needs are in order to make the final determination and eligibility. A registry will
help emergency management personnel identify the target populace as well as create a
plan on how to best evacuate this portion of the populace.
A registry will also help the emergency manager reduce the amount of guesswork
needed to prepare adequately for the special needs populace. While the article titled
Evacuation and Sheltering of People with Medical Dependencies – Knowledge Gaps and
Barriers to National Preparedness by Risoe, Schlegelmilch, and Paturas (2013) is limited
to people with medical dependencies, their logic could be expanded to include other
portions of the special needs population. Estimating the needs of the populace requires a
tremendous amount of effort on the planners; however, incorporating a census-type
survey within each of the cities will help to reduce that burden by eliminating
government estimates that could be out of date or out of touch with the local populace
needs.

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To examine the current system and offer recommendations, one must have a
thorough understanding of the National Incident Management System (NIMS) and the
National Response Plan (NRP) as well as local emergency operations and evacuation
plans. Evacuating the populace is already a difficult task to accomplish without adding
the additional accommodations that must be made for the special needs community
(Edson, John, & Webb, 2007). During the data gathering and planning phases of an
evacuation plan, the process must be thorough enough to encompass at least the basic
needs of the target populace. It is not the intent of the government to provide every need
of its citizens; therefore, the populace must have some level of accountability for
themselves as well as provide enough information to the planners to help ensure that their
needs are accounted for.
A Public Health Report published in 2009 recommends that all of the stakeholders
work together to conduct comprehensive needs assessments, conduct training and
exercises, foster cooperative working relationships, and develop continuity of operations
plans well in advance of a disaster (Nick et al, 2009). There are concerns that the use of
registries will not work because it will be too cumbersome to gather and maintain
information in a manner that does not overly invade the rights and concerns of those
voluntarily participating in the program. While promising, registries may not be the
answer to the overarching problem; however, they do provide an opportunity to bridge
information from the special needs community with the emergency management planning
efforts (Norwood, 2011).
The Federal Evacuation Policy: Issues for Congress asserts that the success of an
evacuation is improved when citizens participate in the planning process. Citizens who

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participate in the planning process are also less likely to resist the evacuation order
because they are more informed and have some buy-in in how the evacuations should be
conducted. Congress has yet to pass legislation to help disseminate information to the
public that would help state and local governments conduct evacuations more effectively
(Lindsay, 2011).
Plans, registries, Community Based Organizations, and exercises add little value
without a program that can both manage and provide oversight governed and measured
by federal requirements in order to receive funding. Ultimately, the process will require a
combination of a number of efforts that incorporates exercises to test plans and some
level of oversight from the federal government.
Summary of Literature Review
In chapter two, the literature review provided insight into studies that have been
conducted by other researchers on the special needs populace associated with this study.
An examination of the applicable literature shows that there is room for improvement in
the inclusion and planning for the special needs populace in emergency management
(GAO, 2006). In addition to the problems facing the EID communities during
evacuations, the literature also identifies instances where performance and capability
gaps exists in emergency management and its tendency to repeat errors of the past
(Donahue & Tuohy, 2006). Overwhelmingly, the literature leads the researcher to
believe that the underlying issues with evacuating the EID communities is the local
governments’ inability to correctly identify and include the portions of the special needs
populace requiring assistance during disasters.

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CHAPTER THREE
The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the cultural phenomena of
emergency evacuations of the elderly, impoverished, and disabled communities. The
focus will be on the leadership management of emergency managers, planners, and
responders actions prior to and during an emergency evacuation of the special needs
populace. Chapter 3 includes descriptions of the problem to be explored, purpose of the
study, theory base, nature of the data, and details of the phenomena that has yet to be
appropriately mitigated by any level of management or government with regards to
emergency evacuations of the special needs populace.
Research Tradition(s)
In phenomenological research, the researcher puts aside their own beliefs in order
to objectively investigate, analyze, and understand how the phenomenon exists. “The aim
of the researcher is to describe as accurately as possible the phenomenon, refraining from
any pre-given framework, but remaining true to the facts” (Groenewald, 2004, p. 5).
Traditionally, the researcher collects data from those have experienced the phenomenon
via an open ended interview process that allows the participants to describe their lived
experience. After the data is collected, the researcher will conduct an analysis of specific
statements and themes in order to search for all possible meanings (Creswell, 1998).
Research Questions, Propositions, and/or Hypotheses
The interview questions will focus on each of the participants’ experiences with
their local governments’ management of emergency evacuations. The following script
and interview questions will be used during the interview but may be adjusted following
the pilot study as needed:

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Thank you for taking time to participate in this study. As a reminder, the informed
consent that you signed protects your personal information from being included as part of
the data to prevent you from being identified as a participant in this study.
The elderly population for the purpose of this study are those persons defined by
Social Security Administration as old enough to receive benefits which usually begin at
age 65 (Social Security Administration, 2005). The impoverished populace applies to
persons & families who fall within and below the poverty lines designated by the
Department of Human Health and Services usually contingent upon the number of people
within household vs gross income (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2014). The disabled populace are those persons defined by the Social Security
Administration as one of the fourteen types of disability impairments (Social Security
Administration, 2003). Management officials of the government who participate in
emergency management functions from planning, funding, exercises, to execution will
also be assessed to determine both their interaction with the public and knowledge of
current processes. Before proceeding, for the purpose of this study, which of these
populations do you belong to?
(Elderly = 1, Impoverished = 2, Disabled = 3, Management = 4)
1. What has been your experience with the local levels of government
management of emergency evacuations?
2. Where do you go when the order is given to evacuate (family, friends, or
shelter)? If your answer was shelter, how did you find out which shelter the local
government has designated for you?

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3. During an impending disaster, what factors will affect your decision
/ability to evacuate?
4. How do you rate the local governments’ management of the special needs
populace during emergency evacuations that they have issued?
5. What recommendations would you offer to the local government to
improve emergency evacuations for the special needs populace?
6. From your knowledge, what has the local government done to ensure that
the special needs populace is included in the planning phase of emergency evacuation
operations?
7. What do you see as the biggest challenge the local governments face when
attempting to evacuate the special needs populace?
8. What has the local government done to inform you of your options during
an emergency evacuation as a member of the special needs populace?
9. What types of aid/assistance will you need from the local government
during an emergency evacuation and have you made that information available to the
local authorities?
Research Design
A qualitative phenomenological approach will guide this study, enabling
participants to provide narratives and perceptions of their experiences within their
respective role during an emergency evacuation. This approach is appropriate because it
will help the reader understand the experiences as described by the participants who have
been subjected to or affected by the phenomenon in some way (Creswell, 2009). Since
this study will be based on personal knowledge and subjectivity, a qualitative

57. 54
phenomenological approach emphasizes the importance of the personal perspective that
gives insight into the mindset and actions during both the preparatory and execution
phases of an emergency evacuation rather than relying on common assumptions and
conventional wisdom (Lester, 2011). The interview process allows the researcher to gain
experiential knowledge directly from participants’ perspective whether as a manager,
planner, or person with special needs.
Population and Sample
The population of this study will include emergency managers, planners, and
those defined by this study as the special needs populace. The population will consist of
volunteer participants from the states of Mississippi and Louisiana who have
acknowledged that they have either participated in an emergency evacuation or have first-
hand knowledge of someone who has (i.e., a relative, patient). The premise of selecting a
populace with experiential knowledge will help the researcher remain concise by utilizing
ideas, memory, and data from actual events vice examining data from someone that is
unfamiliar with the process or the challenges they may face during an emergency
evacuation.
Sampling Procedure
The selection of participants involved will be a purposive representative sample
of emergency managers, planners, and the special needs populace. Purposive samples are
chosen for a particular purpose and can usually provide inside information about the
group you are studying (Davis, Gallardo, & Lachlan, 2012). Once the targeted
population has been contacted, each respondent will be asked to identify other members
of the population who may be willing to participant thus incorporating the snowball

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sampling design. In order to minimize the biases created by utilizing the snowball
sampling technique, I will also contact at least two additional sources with contacts
within the community which are independent of the other (Hardon, Hodgkin, & Fresle,
2004). Once the sample population has been established, interviews will be conducted
within a range of fifteen to twenty participants. Approximately fifteen percent will
consist of a mix of emergency managers and planners, and the remaining population will
be used to fill the purposive sample.
Instrumentation
The study will involve person to person open-ended interview questions in a
semi-structured format that will focus on the participants’ experiences with the
management of emergency evacuations by the local levels of government. This
instrument is appropriate, because it is considered to be the best database for analysis
(Merriam, 2009). The open-ended interview will allow the participants to have more
flexibility with their responses to the questions based on their personal experiences.
Utilizing a semi-structured format creates more opportunities for the discovery of
supplemental themes that may also be important to this research study.
Validity
To validate the reliability of the findings the methods will be duplicated with each
participant in the study. “The methods section describes what procedures were followed
to minimize threats to internal validity, the results section reports the relevant data, and
the discussion section assesses the influence of bias” (Slack, & Draugalis, 2001, p. 1).
Every attempt will be made to ensure that each of the participants are treated respectfully
and equally. Interview settings will also be replicated as closely as possible to limit

59. 56
distractions and to create a comfortable yet ideal setting for each participant. Controlling
variables not relevant to this study will be vital to ensuring that the internal validity of the
study is not compromised. Additional variables recognized during the survey will be
captured to support follow-on studies to support the research topic that is the focus of this
dissertation. Once the conclusion of the study has been determined to be valid, the
external validity will be assessed to determine if the study will hold true with similar
populations in other geographic locations. It is believed that this study will be able to be
replicated with generalizability across people within the United States and abroad with
similar findings and results.
Reliability
Findings from research are dependable only if the data collection instrument is
reliable and valid. The quality of the participants will have a direct impact on the
reliability of the data collection process. The pilot study will help to test the interview
questions to ensure that they are effective tools to collect the data that this research is
intended to capture. In a qualitative phenomenological study, the intent of utilizing a
purposive sample is to capture data from the experiences of the target population directly
affected by the phenomena subsequently making the information reliable when based on
statements of facts.
Data Collection
The study will involve person to person open-ended interview questions in a
semi-structured format that will focus on the participants’ experiences with the
management of emergency evacuations by the local levels of government. This
instrument is appropriate, because it is considered to be the best database for analysis

60. 57
(Merriam, 2009). The open-ended interview will allow the participants to have more
flexibility with their responses to the questions based on their personal experiences.
Utilizing a semi-structured format creates more opportunities for the discovery of
supplemental themes that may also be important to this research study.
In accordance with the procedures of Colorado Technical University’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB), participants of this study will be required to sign an
informed consent form. The informed consent will provide the participant with
information about the purpose of the study, the procedures that will guide their
participation, the benefits of participation, the risks of participation, the cost and/or
compensation of participation, and contact information. Participants will also be
reminded that their participations is voluntary and that they may withdraw from the study
at any time.
Research must take place in accordance with ethical guidelines ensuring the
confidentiality of participants. The participant will also be made aware of their rights to
privacy to ensure them that their personal information will be completely confidential.
The informed consent will be kept on record for a period of no more than three years. In
addition to the informed consent, each interview will be recorded for historical purposes
and to ensure accuracy of the information collected with the subsequent transcriptions.
The informed consents and recorded media will be kept in a secure filing cabinet in my
home office with an electronic back up in a secure web-based storage system. Access to
these storage locations will be limited to the investigator only. All information collected
must comply with confidentiality standards set forth by the Colorado Technical
University Institutional Review Board.

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The interviews will take place over the phone or via video conferencing devices.
When telephone and video conferencing capabilities are not capable, face to face
interviews will be conducted at an independent location that will provide privacy and
reduced distractions when possible. Some participants may want to conduct interviews at
a location of their choosing due to accessibility or transportation issues. The researcher
will be considerate of the needs of the participant and will utilize locations that work best
for each of the participants of the study.
The geographic location of the study will include participants from the states of
Mississippi and Louisiana. These states were chosen because of the researcher’s past
experiences with hurricanes in these areas as a child growing up on the Mississippi Gulf
Coast. The states were also chosen because of the number and quality of contacts that I
have within each state who may be participating in this research study. The participants’
recent experiences with major hurricanes (Katrina and Rita) that have impacted each of
their states makes them the best candidates for the purposive samples in regards to this
study and emergency evacuations.
A pilot study will be conducted to help develop and test the adequacy of the
research instruments that will be utilized during the data collection process. The pilot
study will utilize approximately fifteen percent of the total sample size of twenty. By
conducting the pilot study, the researcher will be able to establish whether the sampling
frame and techniques are effective. The benefits of the pilot study are its ability to collect
preliminary data, further development of research questions, and determining the overall
feasibility of the study (van Teijlingen, & Hundley, 2001).

62. 59
The interviews will be conducted after receipt of signed informed consent forms
at pre-scheduled interview times agreed upon by the researcher and participant. Each of
these interviews will be conducted via telephone or video teleconferencing and recorded
for historical purposes that will be transcribe verbatim. Informed consent forms are
required for participation in the pilot study just as they are for the formal study.
Data Analysis
Once the data has been collected, codified, and analyzed, the results and themes
of the study will be annotated in narrative form in this section. Data will be coded to
comply with confidentiality requirements from Colorado Technical University
Institutional Review Board. Each of the participants will be considered to fit in one of
the populaces identified as special needs for the purpose of the study; therefore, each
population will not require specific codes. Supporting charts and graphs will be created
to help the reader simplify the large amounts of information obtained from the study.
The data will be organized and presented by question as recommended by Roberts
(2010).
Summary of Chapter Three
The results of the research will contain a summary of all findings and explain
what the study discovered in regards to the phenomena. The literature provides the
foundation of the study which suggests that the emergency management community is
not being held accountable of their planning and inclusion of the special needs populace
in the planning phase for emergency evacuations. For the federal government to regulate
a special needs requirement, it would require vast resources; however, it could delegate
that responsibility to the state and local levels of governments. As a requirement to

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receive additional funding, the federal government could require states to submit
emergency evacuation plans, exercise data, and census data to support the local
governments’ request for federal funding.
This research study will provide the enlightenment to the emergency planners on
all levels of government on what is needed by the special needs populace prior to, during,
and following a mass evacuation. Gathering data directly from the populace will provide
planners with enough information to start a grass roots campaign that will be needed to
simultaneously collect data and remove the fear that it would be used for other means.