Beyond the Birds and the Bees: Adolescent Sex-Based Communication

Adolescent Sex-Based Communication 1

Running head: ADOLESCENT SEX-BASED COMMUNICATION

Beyond the Birds and the Bees:

Adolescent Sex-Based Communication

Danielle Singleton

Dr. Greg Paul

Comm. 301 01

April 30, 2010


Abstract

Sex-based communication with adolescents is a very touchy topic to many families, and

has been for many generations. Major developments have been made recently, but the full effect

and appreciation of establishing healthy sex-based communication with one’s adolescent has yet

to truly be felt by most. This study will provide an insight into the world of sex-based

communication with adolescents, through a cross-sectional survey dealing specifically with the

following key points: frequency, directness, basis, and effectiveness of communication. This

study aims to explore those four variables along with the communication factor from the parents’

and adolescents’ points of view.


Problem Statement

A ‘taboo’ topic is defined as something “prescribed by society as improper or

unacceptable”. Many subjects are considered ‘taboo’ in today’s society. One of the most taboo

communication topics is sex. Some people are very open to discussing sex and sexual acts,

while others are extremely closed off. In some countries, it is heinous to even think about

mentioning sex in conversation with anyone. Even in the United States, a very well-developed

and seemingly open-minded country, sex is still a foreboding subject.

There are many factors that contribute to the definition of sexuality as a whole. The first

and most obvious one would be someone’s sexual orientation. There is no true definition of

what causes a person to be of a certain sexual orientation. Genetics and human nature play large

roles regarding sex and sexuality. The communication phenomenon of why sex is such a taboo

dabbles briefly in the subjects previously mentioned. Another large factor of the taboo lies in the

fact that humans by nature are sexual creatures.

The cultural and societal training human beings receive as they go through the stages of

life shape their relationship to sex. Much scholarly and societal benefit can come from

discussing the taboo of sex. A large part of the benefit lies in discussing sex with young children

as they grow up. Very few parents correctly and thoroughly teach their children about sex

enough to prepare them for the teenage years and all of life. Due to this, they may not teach their

children in the future, and the taboo grows. Erasing the taboo of sex, and freely discussing the

topic within families can help shape current and future generations as well as form a better

relationship with themselves and communication in general.

Literature Review


The highest rates of teen pregnancy belong to the United States, and some scholars argue

that television and other media are key sources of information for many young people

(Pinkleton, Austin, Cohen, Chen & Fitzgerald, 2008). There are many different factors that

affect communication with adolescents regarding sex. Two main variables are self-efficacy and

outcome expectancies regarding sex-based communication (DiIorio et al., 2005). Self-efficacy is

the conviction that one is capable of achieving certain goals. In this case, self-efficacy relates to

communication about sex. Other factors that play a main role in adolescent sex-based

communication include both parties comfort with the subject and content being discussed, as

well as the directness of parent’s expectations within the discussion (Sneed, 2008). It is no

surprise that adolescents are affected by other’s opinions and influences about sex. Some of

those could be friends, parents, or social media outlets as previously mentioned. Many factors

can also predict the amount of sex-based communication an adolescent has with someone,

including beliefs, social normative, gender, ethnicity, religion, and general education (Schouten,

Van Den Putte, Pasmans, Meeuwesen, 2007). Generally speaking, many different dynamics

influence how much if any at all communication happens regarding sex between adolescents and

parents.

There are many outcomes of parental-adolescent communication about sex. However, as

adolescents and teens grow up, the facts about all faces of sexual activity are necessary. Having

the knowledge helps adolescents grow better in all facets of life, from mentally and emotionally

to physically (Halpern-Felsher, Reznik, 2009). Although a positive outcome may not be the case

for all growing adolescents, there is still some change brought about by adolescent-parental sex-

based communication. It has been found that children who communicate with their parents

about sex are less likely to have sex at an early age, but also that the communication is tied to a


higher probability of sexually active adolescents (Sneed, 2008). Not all communication needs to

be direct either. Many things a parent does convey messages to a child regarding sex, such as

physical expression between parents, physical information or books provided on the topic, as

well as parents attitudes toward subjects such as nudity all influence a child directly (Lefkowitz,

2002). All the ways a young person can be influenced will be the basis for my research.

Sex-Based Communication with Adolescents

Sex-based communication with adolescents goes far beyond a simple yes or no answer

for whether it happens or not between the two parties. There are four key aspects to research of

this kind that have been more fully developed lately. Scholars have developed questionnaires

and ways of measurement than explore a very broad definition of what constitutes sex-based

communication, developed ways to include varying viewpoints, began including sex-based

communication in a large framework relating to parent-child communication in general, and

finally using very innovative measures such as video-tape, narrative interviews, and ethnography

to fully understand the extent of these conversations (Lefkowitz, 2002). Many social cognitive

variables also play a role in sex-based communication between parents and adolescents (DiIorio,

Resnicow, Dudley, Thomas, Dongqing, Van Marter, 2005).

Many variables are prominently associated with the initiation of sex-based

communication between adolescents and parents. Just as with many things in life, if one

believes they have the power to accomplish something, or self-efficacy, plays a very large role in

whether or not they will do it. A study regarding mothers discussing sexual topics with their

children reported those with high confidence levels in discussing the topic were more likely to do

so (DiIorio, Resnicow, Dudley, Thomas, Dongqing, Van Marter, 2005). Aside from personal

confidence, ethnicity, gender, and religion were also found to influence sex-based


communication. Mothers of African American and Latina heritage highlight the negative aspects

of sex to their children, and the importance of contraceptives (Sneed, 2008). Much

developmental standing, such as puberty, a father’s sex-based values, education, and

communication with his own father represent almost 40 percent of sex-based information sharing

between fathers and sons (Lehr, Demi, DiIorio, Facteau, 2005). While types of communication

may vary depending on certain classifications, across the board comfort of the subject and the

specific content discussed seem to always affect the likelihood of adolescent conversation

(Sneed, 2008).

It is clear that parents’ communication about sex with their adolescents has mostly

positive impacts. Studies have gone both ways on the spectrum, but overall communication

helps adolescents recognize and practice safe sex (Lehr, Demi, DiIorio, Facteau, 2005). Dr.

William A. Block breaks down sexual behaviors into three different stages, or “ages of

sexuality” as he refers to them. The first age is what Block calls the “Dormant Period of

Sexuality”, age five to nine. A child’s moods at this time period are determined by outside

environment, and this can be considered a very malleable period for the child regarding

sexuality. The next stage, ages 10 to 14, is known as the “Awakened Period of Sexuality”.

These ages see an abundance of questions and concerns regarding sexuality. For many, this

stage is a coming alive time period. The final age is the “Active Period of Sexuality”, ages 15 to

19. Teens in this stage are exploring, but are still in need of answers and direction, possibly

more than ever. Those in the final active stage may be more welcoming of parental guidance

than ever before (Block, 1972). As you can see, sex education begins very early in a child’s life.

Parents need to be very open to their own physical expression, as well as their child’s. It is

important to let a child explore their own body, and communicate with them about it in due time


(Gordon, 1973).

Frequency of Communication

There are several clues that can instigate sex-based communication. Some of those may

be an adolescent in a relationship, spending a lot of time unsupervised, and maturation. There is

also evidence that a sexually active adolescent may be more likely to see out sex-based

conversation from their parental figures (Sneed, 2008). The frequency of sexual intercourse

before marriage is increasing, and a study done by the National Commission on Population

Growth and the American Future reported that by the age of 19, 75 percent of African American

females and 40 percent of other races have had sex. The study also revealed a disturbing lack of

knowledge about pregnancy and birth control (Gordon, 1973). Sex-based communication is

introduced and integrated at a very young age, with the stereotypical blue and pink blankets and

clothing for newborn babies. Boys and girls are expected to act differently, and are frequently

exposed to these differences. The communication messages form a child’s identity as well as

their communication with everyone around them (Berryman-Fink, Ballard-Reisch & Newman,

1993). The frequency with which sex-based communication is induced into an adolescent’s life

from such an early point forward only increases the need for parental figures to communication

with them as well.

It is a fact in society today that many teens are ignorant about sexual activity. Increased

sexual experience brings about a decrease in factual knowledge of sex. Experiencing sexual

activities at an early age seems to make adolescents averse to communicating about sex (Gordon,

1973). It is important to make adolescents feel like they are in control of their sexual destiny.

Parental support of contraceptive methods and sexual activity decisions needs to be felt, and

frequently. Parents must convey supporting messages to their children, covering all aspects of


sexuality, ranging from sexual thoughts and masturbation to diseases and pornography (Gordon,

1973). There are many ways to measure the frequency of sex-based communication. A few

often-used ways include discussing the general frequency of sex, using an array of yes-no

questionnaires, also known as frequency scales. It is important in these frequency studies to go

beyond a simple yes-no question of whether a pair has talked about sex, and in depth into what

constitutes sex and measure when the occurrences take place as well (Lefkowitz, 2002). Another

level that goes in hand with frequency of the communication is the actual communication

content.

Quality of Communication

There are many different types of sex-based communication that have been discussed. A

prominent setting for this type of communication is an educational institution. Research has

shown that sexual knowledge programs led by peers are often believed to be more effective than

adult leaders (Pinkleton, Austin, Cohen, Chen & Fitzgerald, 2008). Referring back to Gordon’s

three ages of sexuality mentioned before, specific content for each stage can be broken down.

Children in the Dormant Age wish to be uninhibited by sexual desires, look for friends opposed

to lovers, and relate better to animals over people. The Awakened Age wishes to know

everything, in great detail, and looks for leadership and guidance. The Active Age shuns the

book knowledge, acts out and discovers on their own, and is very contradictory (Gordon, 1973).

As a child grows, the quality of the sex-based communication must change with the tides.

There are many topics concerning sexual behavior that can be discussed and studied. A

particular study focused on 14 different topics, and drew conclusions regarding the quality of

sex-based communication. It was found that the majority of communication did not directly

address the act of sex, but rather other topics just brushing with the main act. For example,


around 30 percent of discussants each talked about topics such as abstaining from sex until

marriage and only going so far sexually; whereas roughly 70-80 percent discussed “safer” topics

like dating and relationships, and cautions of diseases (Sneed, 2008). It is also true that only

until recently, most sex-education materials: books, pamphlets, commercials, and more were

aimed mostly at white middle-class youth and not other lower-income adolescents (Gordon,

1973). This single-class aimed quality is not as prominent an issue today as it once was, but still

an issue nevertheless.

Areas of Interest & Hypotheses

The issue of sexual communication has come a long way from what it previously was,

but it is still in need of much improvement. The metatheory that will guide my research is

ontology, due to the nature of “what” exactly the research is examining. It will also be guided by

a social constructivist branch, because reality doesn’t start out real, but is after discussion and/or

use. A phenomenological paradigm of communication will also be used, due to the extent the

research relies on experience. The separate actions that define sexual activity are also constantly

growing, which provides a complication in research on this topic. One such grouping method

used related sexual communication to outside factors, and identified four separate categories, one

of which was safer sex communication. Within that focus HIV, STDs, safe sex, and

contraception were studied (Lefkowitz, 2002). This example is only one such breakdown of one

type of sex-based communication. The broad research question derived from this review is the

following: How does that amount of communication about sex between adolescents and parents

affect the decisions of the child? The main hypotheses I intend to study are the following:


Hypotheses 1: The more communication about sex between adolescents and parents there is the

more educated the child’s decisions will be.

Hypotheses 2: The more directly communication about sex between adolescents and parents

concerns the act of sex and more explicit topics, the more effective it will be.

Hypotheses 3: The less communication about sex between adolescents and parents is based off

of gendered stereotypes, the more effective it will be.

Method

Design

This study will strive to answer the proposed research question and will focus more

specifically on the main hypotheses previously stated. The variables of interest in Hypothesis

one are communication about sex (independent variable), and decisions of the child (dependent

variable). For Hypothesis two the independent variable is the directness of sex-based

communication, and the dependent variable is the effectiveness of the communication.

Hypothesis three’s independent variable is the level communication is based on gendered

stereotypes, and the effectiveness is again the dependent variable. These variables are all

continuous variables, due to them mostly being levels and having values. Because the variables

deal with ranges, they will be operationalized using ratio Semantic Differential Scales. For

instance, the level of communication as well as its’ directness, basis, and effectiveness will be

measured. Those indicators are the most essential in this study.


Research has shown that sexual knowledge programs led by peers are often believed to

be more effective than adult leaders (Pinkleton, Austin, Cohen, Chen & Fitzgerald, 2008). Based

on that knowledge, a younger generation wave of peers will run the study rather than adult

researchers. This is a core theory guiding my hypotheses and research question. This study will

also be conducted using phenomenological review strategies. This type of design allows for

more universal conclusions based heavily on the reviewers’ personal experience, as well as

existing theories (Campbell Collaboration, 2001). This analysis will strive to be very

comprehensive. Steps will be taken to ensure the selection of participants for the study is done

fairly and accurately.

Participants

The participants for the study will be selected using random sampling. A stratified

sample will be done by families with children in adolescence: ages 8 to 15. Each age will be the

stratum that families will be randomly selected from. The families within the sample size will be

from the Lancaster, Pennsylvania area. While I realize this demographic does not represent the

entire world, it is more realistic than saying I will send letters to everyone around the country

trying to get them to participate in my study. The families that are randomly selected out of my

stratified sample will be notified of being chosen to participate in a study concerning adolescent

sex-based communication. They will be sent the cross-sectional survey with a letter of

explanation. The letter will explain the study a bit and say that they were randomly selected to

participate. An optional survey will also be sent in the packet for the adolescent to take, if the

parent or guardian judges it okay for the child to fill out. Selected participants will be offered a

$50 visa gift card for participating, as well as an entry into a raffle for a variety of gift

cards/family-based prize baskets.


This unique style of survey questions will result in rich data. Many researchers have used

unique collection techniques in studies on this same topic, including Yowell (1997), who

instructed mothers and daughters to discuss sexual topics while being taped, and interviewed

them about the experience afterwards (Lefkowitz, 2002). The more participants in this study the

better, so there is really no set number at this point in time. Logically, not every family with a

child age 8-15 in the Lancaster area will respond positively about participating in the focus

group. However, a 40 percent return rate is required for surveys to be valid, so I will aim for that

same percentage of response rate to my selected participants.

Procedures

One researcher concluded that the best research in the area of adolescent sex-based

communication is rooted in a combination of many different techniques including but not limited

to: multifaceted measures, multi-methods such as interviews, observations, surveys, and focus

groups, and multiple reporters (Lefkowitz, 2002). So obviously, there is a focus on the “multi”

or “many”. This particular study will strive to take that into account and use it to an advantage.

A cross sectional survey will be given in this study. This type of survey describes the sample at

one point in time, similar to a snapshot. The circumstances tend to influence the responses,

which is why the survey will be mailed to the participant; so they can take it on their own time in

the comfort of their own home. The main questions of the survey will concern the variables in

the hypotheses: frequency, directness, basis, and effectiveness of communication. An example

question might be something along the lines of “How often do you discuss sexual topics with

your parent/adolescent?” or “What types of things do you consider sexual communication?”

Another question that may be asked specifically on the adolescent’s survey that has proven to be

effective could be “How good a communicator about sex and sex-related issues is your


parent/guardian (Feldman & Rosenthal, 2000)?” The previous question specifically assesses the

adolescent’s view, which is equally as important.

Following survey, participants will then fill out a seven point Semantic Differential Scale

in order to gauge the strength of values of the hypotheses’ ratio level measures. Respondents

will be asked to rate an item on various characteristics to further support the data collected in the

narratives. Each characteristic on the scale, which will include things such as: frequency,

directness, basis, and effectiveness of sex-based communication, honesty, and how the situation

was perceived by the individual will be on the scale with bipolar adjective labels. The three

bipolar adjectives most commonly found are evaluation (good/bad), potency (strong/weak), and

activity (active/passive).

Rather than use a Likert Scale for this data, which measures respondents’ level of

agreement with opinion statements, a Semantic Differential was chosen. I believe the Semantic

Differential Scale will be more helpful in this study utilizing the three adjectives: evaluation,

potency, and activity regarding sex-based communication. The scale in general will help testing

for reliability and validity, and will add to the study and data. Demographics questions will also

be asked of participants, at the end of the survey.

Measures

The level of measurement for this study will be ratio. Even though it intends to use a

Semantic Differential Scale, the data is ratio because you cannot have negative communication.

Zero is absolute in this case, and therefore ratio level data. A Semantic Differential Scale will

still be used to justify the findings from the narratives. The Scale will explore meanings

attributed to the main hypotheses points in the study. Previous research measures will also be

used, for example the “Communication about Sex Questionnaire” (Somers & Paulson, 2000).


This questionnaire fell short capturing the intensity of data, since there are so many topics to be

considered (Lefkowitz, 2002). However, questions from the Somers & Paulson questionnaire

could still be beneficial to the Semantic Differential and in measuring more data for this study.

Another similar measure that will be used to assess and validate the data will be the

Sexual Communication Scale (SCS). The SCS focuses on the frequency of communication

about a large number of sexual topics. The list was created using previously created measures.

There are 20 different topics measured using a five-point scale and measured for communication

with both mothers and fathers. A few of the 20 topics that will be integrated into my Semantic

Differential Scale and study include the sexual reproductive system, menstruation, nocturnal

emissions, sexual intercourse, sexually transmitting diseases, love and/or marriage, and many

more (Brogan, Fiore, & Wrench, 2009).

Proposed Data Analysis

Ideally, both the cross sectional survey and the Semantic Differential Scale points will

match up. The questions taken from the “Communication about Sex Questionnaire” (Somers &

Paulson, 2000), and/or the Sexual Communication Scale will also reinforce the analysis. The

scale will be analyzed by exploring the meanings proposed by the three adjectives: evaluation,

potency, and activity. The responses should also match up to those adjectives, which will be

evaluated thoroughly. The content analysis of this study will focus heavily on the interpretive

meaning in language. Typically content analysis relies on systematic, objective, and quantitative

descriptions, but in order to get the most out of this particular topic, we must induce the

interpretive approach. The data will be coded into categories that strongly correlate to the Sexual

Communication Scale’s 20 items. The data analysis will then focus on how frequent mentions in

each category are and how solid and effective the responses seem to be.


The responses to the survey will measure the key variables in the hypotheses, which are

the frequency, directness, basis, and effectiveness of communication. The items used to measure

each variable will be the surveys, as well as the categories the data are coded into. The

categories will be based on the three adjective pairs of the Semantic Differential Scale:

evaluation, potency, and activity. Coding categories will also come from the Sexual

Communication Scale’s list of items previously mentioned. The minimum agreement required

for each coded unit is 70 percent. At least three items are needed to measure a construct, and I

believe my study has met that.

In order to explore the relationships between the variables of the study a test of regression

[R] will be run. A multiple linear regression test would be most appropriate in this case to

measure the relationship between one continuous DV and multiple continuous IVs. They will be

looked at separately and as a group, a very interactive process. These tests will ultimately lend

the data to many productive settings, including clinical studies, gender studies, and a host of

relationship issues (Brogan, Fiore, & Wrench, 2009).


References

Berryman-Fink, C., Ballard-Reisch, D., & Newman, L. H. (Eds.). (1993). Communication and

sex-role socialization. New York: Garland Publishing, INC.

Block, W.A. (1972). What your child really wants to know about sex and why. New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall, INC.

Brogan, S. M., Fiore, A., Wrench, J. S. (2009). Understanding the Psychometric Properties of the

Sexual Communication Style Scale. Human Communication, 2009, 12, 421-445.

Campbell Collaboration (2001). Campbell Collaboration guidelines. Retrieved March 31, 2010

from www.campbellcollaboration.org

Collins, A. J. and Fauser, C. J. M. B. (2005). Balancing the strengths of systematic and narrative

reviews. Human Reproduction Update, 11, 103-104.

DiIorio, C., Resnicow, K., Dudley, W. N., Thomas, S., Dongqing, T.W., Van Marter, D. F.,

Manteuffel, B., & Lipana, J. (2005). Social cognitive factors associated with mother-

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Members’ Perceptions of Parents as Sex Educators.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2000,

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developmental perspective. Prevention Researcher, 16.

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of Qualitative Studies, Moving Back to a More Systematic Narrative Review. The Qualitative

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communication about sex. New Directions for Child & Adolescent Development, 2002,

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Pinkleton, B. E., Austin, E. W., Cohen, M., Chen, Y. C., Fitzgerald, E. (2008). Effects of a peer-

led media literacy curriculum on adolescents' knowledge and attitudes toward sexual behavior

and media portrayals of sex. Health Communication, 2.

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Yowell, C. M. “Risks of Communication: Early Adolescent Girls’ Conversations with Mothers
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