Thesis Corporate Excellence This research builds on the premise that “appropriate measurement is fundamental for estimating the benefits” and investigates the hypothesis that it is necessary to measure public relations effectiveness in order to justify these activities. Although the research and practice in the area of Public Relations have been in place since 1987, the accumulated academic and professional experience has not translated into techniques that could rationalize or improve the implementation of Public Relations activities. This lacuna is at the centre of the research conducted by Joan Cuenca, who based on already available models suggests his own hypothetical model of the global audience of Public Relations in order to measure the activity generated by Public Relations. The research attempts to come up with an answer to the following question: in what form is it possible to justify Public Relations activities?

1. Thesis
Strategy Documents
T03 / 2011
Joan Cuenca
Public Affairs
A quality analysis of
relationships within the
field of Public Relations
Application of a comprehensive auditing model in Public Relations to the
municipal company 22@ of Barcelona City Council
In keeping with the adage “you can’t control what organisations and their audiences, or stakeholders,
you can’t measure”, the hypothesis that informs this as an intangible resource.
research is the need to measure the performance of
Public Relations in order to justify their existence. Yet despite accepting the certainty of the fact
intangibles are the repository of the differential
Although it is true to say the field of Public Relations value23, between leading companies and their less
has been studied and professionally pursued since developed counterparts – a recent study by the
1987, the accumulated corpus of academic and Spanish Foundation for Financial Studies, the
professional experience has failed to show people Fundación de Estudios Financieros (FEF), reveals
how to rationalise or improve their performance in that 65% of the companies listed in Spain’s Ibex-35
this matter. In response to this concern, the research index admit that intangible assets add value to their
conducted by Joan Cuenca posits a hypothetical business -, only financial or accounting audits are
model of comprehensive auditing in Public Relations regulated and highly standardised.
based on an amalgamation of models already put
forward for measuring the activity generated by This means that the discipline of Public Relations
Public Relations. In short, the aim of the research is involves an intangible asset, namely, the system of
to answer the following question: how can activities relationships. This cultivation of a resource that is
in Public Relations be justified? scarcely visible and difficult to understand would
explain why its measurement has been complex, or
Relationships, an intangible resource even dismissed from the start. Within this context,
By understanding the notion “relationship” to and based on the premise that you can only improve
be this discipline’s essence and duty1, the model what you can measure, the key lies in discovering
defines the relationships entered into between the hard facts for measuring any intangible asset4.
Document prepared by Corporate Excellence - Centre for Reputation Leadership, citing the doctoral thesis “Analysis of the quality of relationships in the field of Public
Relations” by Joan Cuenca, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona.
1. The aim of Public Relations is to create, obtain, initiate, nurture, uphold, entertain, develop and improve relationships.
2. Along these lines, Hiroyuki Itami (1991) singles out three reasons for the importance of intangible resources, which this author describes as invisible: “Invisible assets are
the real source of competitive power and the key factor in corporate adaptability for three reasons: they are hard to accumulate, they are capable of simultaneous multiple
uses and, they are both inputs and outputs of business activities”.
3. The research results reported by Eccles (2007) explain that the main indicators of a company’s performance are not to be found solely in financial data. According to this
author, quality, customer satisfaction, innovation, market share, and other parameters of this nature, often reflect a company’s condition and perspectives more accurately
than its reported earnings do.
4. Mintzberg (2008) contends that “believing that a company can be measured solely in figures is a mistake. Intangibles are hard to quantify, but they are often more important,
carrying greater weight on the income statement”

2. A quality analysis Understanding audiences, saving time and money, purposes in favour of the organisation, whereas the
of relationships taking the right decisions, avoiding errors, justifying aim in the two-way symmetrical model is to reinforce
within the field of efforts and engaging with the environment are some the dialogue among the stakeholders variable, in
Public Relations
of the explanations Xifra (2005) provides when pursuit of mutual understanding and advantage.
expounding on why it is essential to investigate the
system of relationships before drawing up a Public It was as of 2000 that the pursuit of Public
Relations plan. Relations began to be seen as the executive
function of “managing relationships”. The main
The conclusions reached by this PhD thesis illustrate idea is that professionals in Public Relations have
the extent to which the model can be a source that the brief to create and foster relationships with
gives rise to the arguments validating activities in Public an organisation’s various stakeholders and the
Relations, and the strategic information it provides duty to continue improving their measurement
for perfecting the core of a Public Relations plan techniques in order to show senior management
specifically, and a communications one in general. how their activities can play a vital role: the return
on investment (ROI); the measurement of results
Evolution of the Theory (the long-term effectiveness of a Public Relations
programme) and the measurement of production
of Public Relations
(how the programme has been implemented and
Throughout the history of this discipline, sundry
how effective its techniques were).
methods and different techniques have been
proposed in order to learn how to measure Public
Relations activities, and thereby gauge their What is to be measured?
effectiveness; with these models being as follows: What needs to be measured accurately is the quality
of the relationship this discipline galvanises between
Models of Public Relations that explain how this an organisation and its stakeholders, as this can be
discipline has been pursued at each moment: confirmed as the specific remit of Public Relations.
The press agent/publicity model (1850-1900) The current debate being addressed by experts
Dissemination of an organisation’s information in Public Relations has focused on the proposal
using persuasive methods. of indicators that evaluate the quality of the
relationship established between an organisation
The public information model (1900-1920) and its stakeholders, as the product of its endeavours
Dissemination of an organisation’s information in in Public Relations.
an objective manner.
The following are the three most widely
The information in both models flows in a single studied indicators: 5
direction: from the organisation to the audience.
Neither of them includes any analysis or monitoring • Measuring the degree of trust that co-
of the activities themselves nor examines the exists. The term trust is referred to as
outcomes of the role of Public Relations. the cornerstone of the behaviours with
a decisive influence on interaction.6
The two-way asymmetrical model (1920-1960) Trust has been highlighted as the indicator that
It uses the knowledge, methods and techniques enables organisations to exist.
of social sciences, with the aim being to persuade
stakeholders to favour the organisation. • The level of understanding between
stakeholders. Reference is made to a mutual
The two-way symmetrical model (1960-Present day) agreement as the consistency and degree of
It seeks mutual understanding between an reciprocal conviction in any given discourse.
organisation and its stakeholders, with research Mutual understanding has been the indicator
playing a significant role. proposed for discovering the level of intelligibility
existing between the parties in a relationship.
The information in both models flows in both
directions: from an organisation to its audiences • The mutual satisfaction established between
and vice versa. The audience response in both cases the parties involved in a relationship.
is carefully assessed, albeit in a different manner: Satisfaction is referred to as a feeling, the
in the two-way asymmetrical model an analysis is result of an emotion that is based on the
conducted to further fine-tune the communication fulfilment of pre-established expectations
variable in the system of relationships for persuasive and requirements, which allow obtaining
5. Joan Cuenca affirms that to his surprise he has been unable to locate sufficient published material to provide some overall model for the auditing of Public Relations or
that delves further into the partial models proposed. It appears to be a gap in knowledge that needs to be filled though the production of literature specialising in Public
Relations.
6. Trust can be quantified according to the following equation: +Inf / -Inf = k. Where +Inf is the information we have, -Inf is the information we do not have, and the constant
k is either the degree of trust or lack of trust.
Thesis 2

3. A quality analysis an outcome that is to a certain extent
of relationships valued as one of pleasure and enjoyment. Indicators Techniques
within the field of
Public Relations
• Focus • Structural interviews
Auditing Public Relations • Intensity • In-depth interviews
Auditing the system of Public Relations is an • Stability • Content analysis
instrument of research that studies and assesses the • Degree of • Group discussions
Knowledge • Measuring or
variables involved in the system of relationships: • Social Support attitudinal scales
the environment, communication, stakeholders
and situations or problems.
The analysis of the variables in the system of • Researching issues
relationships has been the theoretical platform used
Issues management7 is defined by the
by scholars and professionals in Public Relations for
communication and relationship strategies used
developing the new measurement proposals.
for impacting upon the life-cycle of a public
matter. Its basic purpose is to investigate an
It will be noted how these different analytical
organisation’s environment and resolve possible
scenarios always feature the inference related to the
problems or issues as soon as their first signs are
issue or problem to be addressed in the system of
detected. Its pre-emptive nature points to the
relationships, given that is the reason triggering the
key role Public Relations play when rolling out a
explorative activity.
strategy of this kind.
Although as yet unproven in any empirical study, it
is considered that audits within the sphere of Public Indicators Techniques
Relations are a valuable means for estimating the
advantages and disadvantages that this discipline • Social trends • The Delphi
has for an organisation. • conomic cycles
E method
• olitical agendas
P • The cross-
• ultural movements
C impact matrix
Audit models for diagnosing the environment • Technological development • he scenario
T
Environmental analysis systems are used to • tate of the environment
S method
observe trends in Public Opinion and shed light • ompetitors’ strategies
C
• ecurity
S
on those circumstances in the socio-political • Quality of relationships
environment that may have a significant bearing • uality of the product
Q
on the organisation. or service
The essence of environmental auditing,
understood to be the research specific to the
management of potential conflicts, can be Audit models for diagnosing perceptions
summarised in two aspects: The dual purpose of this category of analysis is, on
the one hand, to define audiences, and on the other,
a) The early identification of potentially to determine the way in which these audiences
conflictive issues that may have a future impact perceive and value an organisation.
on an organisation.
• Auditing Corporate Culture
b) A strategic response designed to mitigate or
exploit their potential ramifications.
Indicators Methods
• Researching Public Opinion
• Values • Ethnographic
The focus of opinion indicates the quality of • Symbolic actions method
the type of pre-disposition. The purpose of this • Foundation • Organizational
• Competence Development
practice is to discover the opinion of internal • Symbols
or external stakeholders on a given situation • Rites
or issue that is being researched, highlighting • Myths and taboos
• Security
its significance in terms of the quality – not • Organisational history
the quantity - of the audience surveyed, being • Signs
defined accordingly as a qualitative survey.
7. In view of its markedly pro-active stance, issues management is becoming the model of excellence in public relations.
Thesis 3

4. A quality analysis
of relationships
within the field of
Public Relations
Indicators Methods Indicators Methods
• Corporate • Methods for analysing the • Understanding • Methods for analysing the study
culture overall study of CI • Cohesion of a specific organisation:
• HR policies - ernstein spiderweb method
B • Sharing - Corporate image barometer
• Internal - Lux’s Star method • Self-affirmation - AICA motivation model
climate - an Rekom’s laddering
V - CS technique (NSS)
technique - Natural grouping model
- Keller’s Mannheimer CI-test - Photo classification model
• Methods for analysing the - SERVQUAL method
individual items in the CI mix • Models that evaluate the image
- CIPO organisational
O of a group of organisations:
climate studies - Impact lists
- otterdam Organizational
R - ermanent observatory of
P
Identification Test corporate image (OPIC)
- Organisational climate studies - arometer on trust and
B
- Communication audits credibility (Trust Barometer)
- Service audits
- Graphic design audits
• Auditing Internal Communication
• Auditing Corporate Identity (CI)
Indicators Methods Indicators Analysis techniques
• Notoriedad • Methods for analysing the study • Management • Questionnaires and interviews
• Contenido of a specific organisation: ratios • Diagnoses and analyses of
de la imagen - Corporate image barometer • Consumption communication networks
• Fuerza de - AICA motivation model of resources • Critical communication
la imagen - CS technique (NSS) • Budgetary experiences
- Natural grouping model deviations • Episodic Communication
- Photo classification model • Errors, defects, Channels in Organizations
- SERVQUAL method complaints (ECCO) analysis or message
• Models that evaluate the image or delays transmission analysis
of a group of organisations: • Efficiency • Focus groups
- Impact lists • Level of quality • Direct observation
- ermanent observatory of
P • Analysis of communication
corporate image (OPIC) products
- arometer on trust and
B
credibility (Trust Barometer)
• Auditing External Communication
• Auditing Corporate Image Models for auditing social diagnosis
Models for auditing communication diagnoses The concept of business today, beyond the
This involves a diagnostic process whose purpose is maximisation of profits, involves a social agent
to examine and improve each and every one of an for the promotion of its employees, customer
organisation’s internal and external communication satisfaction and the consolidation of its social role
systems and processes. It is designed to provide a within its operating community.
snapshot of its needs in communication, its policies,
practices and capabilities, and throw up data that This approach by an organisation implies a triple
will enable senior management to take well-founded income statement: financial, environmental and
and cost-saving decisions on the organisation’s social. Insofar as it is positive, it will indicate the
future communication goals. extent to which a company is socially responsible.
Thesis 4

5. A quality analysis • Auditing Corporate Social Responsibility context in which an organisation and its
of relationships stakeholders are immersed, and it is of
within the field of considerable use in the design of an audit.
Public Relations
Indicators Methods
• Knowledge maps. Before planning an audit,
• Economic • Social Accounting there is a need, on the one hand, for a map
impact • Social Accountability SA8000
• Environmental • SGE 21 2008
of the organisation’s internal and external
impact • Dow Jones Sustainability stakeholders, with a thorough analysis of
• Social impact Indexes their different profiles; and on the other, a
• Global Compact
• Global Reporting
detailed study and map of the communication
Initiative (GRI) media and the messages co-existing and
being disseminated at that moment.
Hypothetical model for the comprehensive Project 22@Audit9
auditing of Public Relations8 An amalgamating process has enabled application
The hypothetical model focuses firstly on delimiting to be made to the 22@Audit project of parts of
and defining the problem, the situation or issue to certain audit models and methods studied. The
be addressed, and the reason for commissioning overriding aim of this Public Relations audit has
the audit. been to gain empirical knowledge on the quality of
the relationships established between the municipal
This is immediately followed by the gathering company 22@ in Barcelona and one of its key
of information on the background providing the stakeholders, namely, the audience consisting of the
context, which is directly linked to the relationship companies in the ICT cluster.10
to be studied: the environment, the stakeholders
involved and communication. The model has been applied solely to a specific type
of interacting players: the local authority, as the one
Once these data have been collated, the process instigating the project, and a specific group of private
continues with the design and subsequent companies, as the recipients or beneficiaries. In this
application of fieldwork, in other words, the way, and according to Cuenca, the conclusions
auditing of Public Relations. The aim here is reached by this research, while plausible for this
to collect data on the quality indicators of the type of scenario, cannot in any way be considered
relationship that allow appraising the performance universally applicable.
of the relational activity.
The conclusions on the degree of validity and
Cuenca completes his model by highlighting consistency of the hypothetical model as recorded
two requirements to be considered prior to the with this practical exercise are as follows:
auditing process:
1. The audit model provides strategic information for
• An analysis of the organisation’s perfecting the communication plan in general.
environment. This is an exercise that
precedes the auditing process given that 2. The observation of an interaction, the matter to
it contributes to the understanding of the be addressed, has to be circumscribed with certain
Commissioning / Design of Measuring
Background
briefing fieldwork indicators
Environment /
Circumstances
Resources Trust
Problem/ Map of audiences:
Universe and sample Mutual understanding
Situation /Issue internal and external
Research techniques Satisfaction
Map of internal
and external communication
8 Account should be taken of the reductionist exercise that this hypothetical model constitutes in view of the wide range of techniques involved
in the praxis of Public Relations and the even greater number and types of audiences with which organisations enter into relationships.
9 22@Audit is a project for auditing the marketing, communication and events plans of the municipal company 22@ in Barcelona.
10 A further description of the application of this practical exercise can be found in Chapter 4 in the PhD thesis (2010) “El análisis de la calidad de
las relaciones en el ámbito de las Relaciones Públicas” (An analysis of the quality of the relationships within the field of Public Relations).
Thesis 5

6. A quality analysis intervals of pre-established and agreed coordinates c) Satisfaction is the final sentiment that feeds
of relationships so that a discourse can be constructed. back directly off the preceding ones.
within the field of
Public Relations
3. The definition the model requires regarding 7. The model provides information on the
the identity of the players involved (behaviour, adjustment or misalignment that prevails in the
culture and corporate personality), of the interaction. Specific issues that draw the players
environment surrounding them, and of the closer or drive them further part, benefits and
communication established, definitively helps frustrations based on the roles and expectations
to understand the type and level of relationship of each one of the parties.
that exists and to reason the degree reached by
the indicators applied for their evaluation. 8. Cuenca states that the model can be considered
profitable and representative when groups are
4. The reputation index, and the image or analysed (normally the instigators are individual
overall assessment that reciprocally prevails, players who wish to know the effectiveness
has a bearing on the emergence, consolidation of their relational activities and the quality
or modification of the relationship. Regardless of their relationships with a group of vital
of its extent, reputation always determines importance to their stability), but it would be
which party is more inclined to participate in necessary to experiment with another type of
the relationship. players to reach new conclusions and find new
correlations that allow attaining a degree of
5. Regardless of the degree of relationship universal acceptance.
considered, even if the parties declare it does not
exist, when both parties have a certain amount Next steps
of information about each other this becomes 1. The author concludes his work by proposing its
the basis for a unilateral assessment, informed extension to further research that seeks to link
by the impressions, prejudices, pre-conceived the quality of the relationships with a company’s
notions, experiences, convictions and attitudes volume and business results; in other words, to
held of the other. The volume of information verify the hypothesis whereby maintaining good
one has of the other is directly proportional to relations with stakeholders is directly related to
the quality of the assessment made accordingly. business success.
6. The proposed indicators of the model for the 2. From a theoretical/practical perspective, Cuenca
overall auditing of Public Relations (trust, points to the need to establish certain guidelines
mutual understanding and satisfaction) are on how to perform audits on Public Relations
completely independent. Rather than simplifying and their result on an organisation’s map of
matters, this phenomenon complicates the audiences, accompanied by specific tools and
application of the hypothetical model. The certain guiding examples.
degree of one does not depend proportionally on
another, nor have the same impact on a third.
They are communicating vessels, but they are
not harmonious, and this aspect impedes the
combinational analysis of possibilities when the
value of one of the variables is known – being
satisfied with a relationship is independent of
the trust held in the players and the latter is,
in turn, independent of the mutual agreements
reached, which means there is a need to proceed
to the individual study of the outcome of the
application of each one of the indicators and
seek causal relationships.
a) Trust depends on three main aspects: the
characteristics defining each player, the
personal knowledge among players, and
the perception of evidences that directly
or indirectly benefit the players. In turn,
mistrust is based on a lack of knowledge, and
on negative experiences.
b) The indicator related to mutual agreement or
understanding is the most diffuse and the one
least understood by the players. It needs to be
focalised prior to its application.
Thesis 6

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