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Human Resources Information Systems
Technology and 24-hour Working
Towards a New Paradigm
March 2015
Charles Tetebo
Karen Caine
https://www.dropbox.com/sh/44p4gxrztxfhw90/AAD1-tPsO7-fqJXCrnPtEAdha?dl=0
97 UK employees give
their views on information
systems, technology and
current work culture
30.8% “Take action” as a
method of dealing with
negative emotions at work
In 57.5% of cases, themes
of “Ambition” are cited as
reasons for responding to
out of hours messages

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Contents
Foreword ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Key findings and conclusions........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
The organisation-technology perspective explained...................................................................................................................................................................... 11
The employee-technology perspective explained........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Discussion of findings.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Technology and the blurring of lines between work and non work........................................................................................................................................... 13
Does technology meet organisational objectives? ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Attitudes towards technology and experiencing technostress........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Identifying information and IS................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Privacy and IS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Comfort using IS........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Organisational technology and firm competitiveness.................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Perceptions of business efficiency............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Understanding why I use IS....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
How I am expected to use IS ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Why management wishes to change IS...................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
When management wishes to change IS.................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
How to use any changed IS........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Demographics and experiencing technostress............................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Age and technostress.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Gender and technostress ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Seniority and technostress.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Sector and technostress.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

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Length of service and technostress ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Linear analysis demographics and experiencing technostress................................................................................................................................................... 22
Technology and 24 hour working culture...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Do employees feel the need to always be connected? ............................................................................................................................................................... 23
Work family conflict and connectivity ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Personal life identification and connectivity.............................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Family work conflict and connectivity ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Is connectivity a current theme of working culture or is connectivity due to implicit expectations?........................................................................................ 24
Does increased use of technology cause negative emotions?........................................................................................................................................................ 25
Role conflict............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Work family conflict.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Personal life identification ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
General satisfaction levels towards IS........................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Well being and work: Towards a balanced agenda: Negative stress, coping strategies, positive stress, and coping effectiveness. ............................................ 27
Coping Strategies....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Experiencing negative emotions; achieving work task / goals; and having a strong mindset ................................................................................................... 30
Coping effectiveness.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 30
Organisational technology and perceptions of business efficiency at the group level .................................................................................................................. 31
Discussion of linear analyses..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Sense of belonging..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Goal commitment....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Trust in Peers ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Exploring work and non work boundaries..................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Technostress and the achievement of personal life objectives................................................................................................................................................... 33
Sustaining high productivity and achieving work life balance .................................................................................................................................................. 34

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Development of Conceptual model ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 35
The Cooperative relationship model. Explanation of the model and business ecosystem............................................................................................................. 36
Recommendations Explained......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Share the results of this research................................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Undertake strategic systems analyses ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
Profile IS user types................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Adopt methods which inhibit technostress ................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
A message for senior managers ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Discuss coping effectiveness strategies ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Set boundaries between work and non working time ................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Reward pro-social behaviours.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Adopt principles of the cooperative relationship ....................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Profile groups / teams in the organisation.................................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Exercise imagination.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Conclusions.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
The Vested Responsibilities............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Towards a New Paradigm ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
References...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Contacts ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53

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Tables
Tables 1.1 Multiple response analysis: Analysis for out of hours working 13
Table 1.2 Multiple response analysis: Coping strategies. Dealing with negative emotions at work 28
Tables 1.3 Multiple response analysis, combined frequencies: Coping strategies. Dealing with negative emotions at work 29
Figures
Figure 1. 1 The asymmetric relationship between the organisation-technology perspective and employee-technology perspective 11
Figure 1. 2 Pie chart: Attitudes towards IS, Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction 26
Figure 1. 3 The Cooperative relationship conceptual model and business ecosystem 35

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Foreword
Achieving success so far as investments in technology and information systems are concerned continues to elude three out of four firms. Studies
(Laudon and Laudon, 2014) confirm that approximately only one in four organisations strike the essential balance between organisation imperatives
and employees’ necessities to ensure the achievement of successful investments in technology and information systems.
Organisational decision makers are likely to
be well versed with respect to incentives for
investing in technology and information
systems and should also be able to
recognise that the reasons behind their
actions for investments in information
systems can also fall within one of six
categories such as: operational excellence;
new products services and business models;
customer and supplier intimacy; improved
decision making; competitive advantage /
efficiency; and survival (Laudon and
Laudon, 2014).
Nevertheless, whether the overall objective
from the organisational perspective is to be
more efficient, profitable, competitive, or
likewise through the pursuit of technology,
it is difficult to achieve such successes if
technological requirements from
employees’ perspectives are secondary.
Furthermore, it is essential for
organisational decision makers to consider
whether technology causes stress for the
knowledge workers tasked with the
responsibility to use technology as a
requirement of their employment.
Moreover, it is important to recognise
whether there is a mismatch between
organisational expectations and the
requirements of the employees using
technology.
The findings in this report built on the
empirical research of Hetch and Allen
(2009) who explored work and non-work
boundaries; Tarafdar et al. (2011) for which
their study explored technostress; Dewe and
Cooper (2012) who explored the well-being
and work and how to achieve a balanced
agenda; Haines (2014) who researched
group working in virtual teams; and Laudon
and Laudon (2014) who largely explored
technology and information systems.
The results led to us proposing a conceptual
model termed “The Cooperative
Relationship Model” and its ten
accompanying principles as a method to
mitigate the challenges faced during IS
investments, and offer practical business
solutions for the betterment of
organisational and employee imperatives. In
this report we consider the reasons
organisations invest in IS (termed the
organisation-technology perspective) and
the impact these investments have on
employees (defined as the employee-
technology perspective).
This report draws on the views of 97 regular
PC users employed in the UK who told us
about their experiences with technology and
information systems and helped us to
determine whether technology is blurring
the line between home and work; the extent
to which technology creates a 24-hour work
culture; and explore whether having
undefined boundaries (between work and
non work) causes negative emotions. Our
thanks to all those who kindly participated.
Charles Tetebo
MSc, BPS, Assoc. CIPD

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Key findings and conclusions
Perceptions of business efficiency
affects whether individuals’ believe
organisational information systems
(IS) helps to meet individual
objectives and this affects firm
competitiveness and efficiency.
Undefined IS strategies are costly
for business firms.
Profiling IS user types should form
part of the strategic systems
analysis. Furthermore it helps an
organisation to gauge ‘problem’
user types and shape the
organisation’s IS user culture for
the purposes of successful IS
implementation. Profiling user
types also helps with identifying
individuals likely to experience
technostress –and this too can then
be managed appropriately.
Technostress (which is described
as ‘one’s inability to deal with
technologies in a healthy manner’)
is detrimental to achieving work
tasks / goals and, to the health of
individuals. Specifically, techno-
invasion (which signifies the
phenomenon where professionals
can be reached anywhere at any
time through technology) inhibits
one’s ability to deal with negative
emotions effectively. Furthermore,
health risks associated with
technostress is costly for business
firms and counterproductive to the
aims which firms want to achieve
through the adoption of
technology.
Senior managers are more likely to
experience technostress than other
occupational groups.
Approximately 25% (23.7%) of
respondents to this study ‘put negative
emotions out of their mind’ as a method
of dealing with negative emotions at
work. This cannot be conducive to
employee well-being. Organisations will
lose talented employees if not sooner,
then eventually, if setbacks are not
counselled.
When work/family conflict occurs
(which is synonymous with: often doing
work at home; and frequently receiving
work-related correspondence at home
(e.g. email etc.) and anything of that
nature to mention a few), then there is
less time for personal life objectives.
However when boundaries are set,
individuals have more time to spend on
personal life objectives. Role conflict
and work family conflict also occurs
from increased use of technology.
Furthermore, job identification (which
relates to examples such as: focusing
completely on work related issues; and
rarely dealing with personal matters
while working etc.) corroborates with
achieving work tasks / goals; and
personal life identification (i.e. ensuring
one’s personal time is dedicated to their
own volition unrelated to work etc.)
corroborates with having a strong
mindset and positive attitude.
Consequently, personal time for oneself
is important. As a result of the
aforementioned finding, it is important
to dedicate time to aspects one enjoys,
unrelated to work. The balance helps
with having a strong mindset, and gives
the person more internal coping
resources for overcoming difficult
setbacks in life and at work.

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The research confirmed that there is
generally an asymmetrical relationship
for most employees in the employment
relationship. In other words, it is the
norm for work to permeate non-work
boundaries but rarely the other way
around. Consequently, employees are
likely to feel undervalued if their efforts
of pro-social behaviours go unnoticed
for prolonged periods of time.
Organisations can lose talented
employees if pro-social behaviours of
their employees continue unnoticed.
The research highlighted the importance
of efficiency, coordination, fairness and
satisfaction of individual perceptions in
group/team tasks. Moreover, the
research demonstrated that efficiency,
coordination, fairness and satisfaction
affect levels of sense of belonging, goal
commitment, and trust in peers.
Furthermore, levels of sense of
belonging, goal commitment, and trust
in peers affect perceptions of business
efficiency and competitiveness.
There are many advances to technology,
science and medicine present today.
Technological advancements will
change the current nature of the
employment relationship and working
practices. It is imperative that HR and
organisational decision makers increase
their present knowledge and familiarise
themselves with present day advances in
technology and scrutinise how their
organisational needs will be affected.
Furthermore, organisational decision
makers should foster environments
where employees are encouraged to
think unconventionally, differently and
from new perspectives by actively
encouraging employees to use their
imaginations for the purpose of deriving
new ways to improve efficiency,
coordination, fairness and satisfaction in
the organisation.

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Recommendations
Share the results Undertake strategic Profile IS user Profile groups / Adopt methods which
of this research systems analyses types teams inhibit technostress

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Senior managers must Set boundaries Discuss coping Reward pro-social Exercise imagination
undertake regular between work and effectiveness strategies behaviours
self-evaluations and aim to non-work with all organisation
inhibit their experiences of members
technostress

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The organisation-technology perspective
explained
The organisation-technology perspective considers technology and information systems
from the perspective of the organisation whereby organisational imperatives are the primary
driving forces for the adoption and implementation of technology and information systems.
Technology and information systems are selected by management to meet six strategic
business objectives of information systems outlined as: operational excellence; new products
services and business models; customer and supplier intimacy; improved decision making;
competitive advantage / efficiency; and survival (Laudon and Laudon, 2014). Moreover, in
the diagrammatic example depicted here (figure 1.1 (top-half of the model)) management
oversees costs for the purposes of regulating expenditure in tandem with fluctuating
business objectives.
Furthermore, in our example, the selection and adoption of technology by management leads
to the restructuring of job functions and work processes in the organisation culminating in
the deployment of the chosen technology by management. In the diagrammatic example,
information systems are selected for data management and telecommunication purposes.
Data management software is responsible for organising and managing the firm’s data so
that end users can efficiently access and use stored data.
Telecommunication services include services which provide data, voice and video
connectivity to employees, customers and suppliers. Telecommunications facilitate
opportunities for: voice communication, surfing the net, sending / receiving email, text and
video messages, sharing photos, watching videos, and conducting video conferences
(Laudon and Laudon, 2014).
Furthermore, the adoption of data management and telecommunication technologies enables
the firm to improve the efficiency of their operations, offer better services / products and
respond to customer demands more effectively. The above mentioned technologies can be
said to have provided business solutions and this leads to the ‘achievement of better business
efficiency’, and ‘increased return purchases from customers’. In the organisation-technology
perspective model example, technology and information systems have helped to mitigate
business challenges.
Figure 1. 1 The asymmetric relationship between the organisation-
technology perspective and employee-technology perspective.
Source: Adapted from Laudon and Laudon (2014).
Note: TPS denotes Transaction Processing Systems.

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The employee-technology perspective explained
The employee-technology perspective
considers the impact of the organisation-
technology perspective on employees.
Furthermore, in the diagrammatic example
above, after management have selected
technology, revised job functions and deployed
technology (in the organisation-technology
perspective) employee performance is
monitored and guided by management (in the
employee-technology perspective (bottom-half
of the model) with the objective to meet
business demands. On the basis of the
diagrammatic example (figure 1.1) where
technology adoption and implementation is
largely driven by organisational necessities, the
employee must adapt to new organisational
technology often with little input in decision
making processes regarding technology which
affect employee working lives. There is the
implicit expectation for the employee to
embrace the new technology immediately, and
undertake her/ his daily routines and individual
tasks at a more efficient or faster rate –because
the new technology provides this avenue.
In our model example, employees use
information systems for primary activities
(Laudon and Laudon, 2014) (such as inbound
logistics which could involve automated
warehousing systems for the storing, receiving
and disseminating of incoming goods) and
support activities (Laudon and Laudon, 2014)
for administration purposes –which could
involve the storing and passing on of
information to those within the organisation
who need to use it in order to contribute to the
organisation.
Moreover, the adoption of data management
and telecommunications technologies (first
mentioned in the organisation-technology
perspective) enables employees to keep track
of elementary activities and transactions of the
organisation, such as sales, receipts, cash
deposits, payroll, credit decisions and the flow
of materials in the organisation (in the
employee-technology perspective).
Transaction processing systems (TPS) (Laudon
and Laudon, 2014) provide these functions,
and in our example, employees use TPS to
record transactions pertaining to business
conduct daily. Through the mechanism of TPS,
employees provide business solutions for their
organisation.
Nevertheless, changes to organisational
technology, is likely to change the current
structure and processes present in the
organisation. In our example, rules and
privileges are “structural changes”; whereas,
privileges/responsibilities are “process
changes” for employees. Our diagrammatic
representation demonstrates that the downward
pointing arrow from the organisational-
technology perspective is approximately three
times the length of the upward pointing arrow
from the employee-technology perspective.
This denotes the asymmetrical nature of
technology and information systems adoption
and implementation in organisations, where
technology-push (organisational imperatives)
dominates demand pull (user needs) (Irani and
Love, 2008).
The current representation of technology-push
factors governing demand pull imperatives is
not wholly conducive to business practice. The
practice of technology-push over demand pull
necessities can lead to feelings and symptoms
of technostress; failed / insolvent IS projects;
employees feeling undervalued; group / team
disruptions and other similar organisational
disharmonies because: organisational rules,
business practices and division of labour are
likely to change with introductions to new
technology.

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Discussion of findings
Technology and the blurring of lines between work and non work
In determining whether technology
is blurring the line between work
and non-work, the first two research
aims of the study sought to examine
whether: employees were working
outside official working hours
because of organisational citizenship
behaviours (OCB) (Daft and Noe
2001) or the psychological contract
(Rousseau, 1995); and why employees respond to work related
information outside contracted hours when they are not explicitly
required to do so. Table (1.1) to the right presents the findings to the
above questions.
There were 24 missing cases in this sample. For 18 cases it was part of
their contractual obligation to respond out of hours because they
responded “N/A” –this was a requirement of the survey question. The
other 6 cases gave answers suggesting they do not respond to out of
hours messages and this was reported as missing cases. In this analysis,
we are only interested in individuals who respond to out of hours
messages when they are not contractually obligated to do so.
Tables 1.1 Multiple response analysis: Analysis for out of hours working.

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The highest most occurring reason why employees replied to out of hours
messages was due to the theme of “Job Identification” (Hetch and Allen,
2009) (8.6% of cases), i.e. –employees rationalised that the job required
them to behave pro-socially and so they do. Job identification was also
linked to other themes such as ‘team working’; –employees ‘did not want
to let their colleagues down’; ‘business necessity’; –again, the reasons
drawn were ‘because it is a requirement of the organisation’;
‘Conscientiousness’ was also a high theme which also featured because
employees ‘felt an obligation’ to behave pro-socially. Interestingly, there
was also a need to ‘belong’ –outlined in this study as ‘Organisational
belongingness’. There were cases where individuals wanted to feel
‘valued’, -another need to belong- which is based on theories of group
theory (Daft and Noe, 2001; Robbins et al., 2010) –and therefore their
pro-social behaviours is due to need to keep ‘group / organisational
dynamics’ balanced.
In over 55% of cases ‘Ambition’ was a theme individuals endorsed for
responding to out of hours messages –‘that is what senior management do,
so follow in their footsteps’ one participant answered. Furthermore, in the
bottom 2% (highlighted in purple) of cases some employees checked in on
work out of ‘curiosity’ –again this is also linked to organisational
belongingness and the ‘need to belong’. In 1% of cases, employees
respond to out of hour’s messages, only during ‘emergencies’. In 0.5% of
cases the flexibility of employees work schedules implied ‘Family Work
Conflict’ (–i.e. –work permeates their non work boundary and therefore
there is a ‘conflict’ between the home and work) occurred as a theme of
checking and responding to out of hours messages. Moreover, in 1.6% of
cases employees indentified more with their personal life, and therefore
stated comments along such themes as ‘they do not reply to out of hours
messages, unless through prior arrangement’.

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Does technology meet organisational objectives?
Understanding individual differences is crucial to the
success of IS projects (Irani and Love, 2008; Dhillon et al.,
2011; and Leidner et al., 2011) and therefore we sought to
clarify from an individual perspective, whether employees
perceive organisational technology helps to achieve
organisational objectives at the individual level.
We tested employees’ ‘perceptions of business efficiency’
and employees ‘perceptions of business efficiency and
business alignment’ against their perceived levels of ‘job
satisfaction’, ‘work performance’ and ‘work productivity’.
These item variables were chosen to determine whether
individuals perceived organisational technology was helping
them to meet their individual objectives and whether this
affected their levels of job satisfaction, work performance
and work productivity.
Our analysis determined that there is a significant difference between
individuals who feel ‘neutral’ about their job satisfaction and those who
answered ‘strongly agree’ regarding their levels of job satisfaction with
respect to perceptions of business efficiency. The findings indicate that
those who ‘strongly agree’ that they are satisfied with their job perceive
there is substantial business efficiency compared to those who feel neutral
about their job satisfaction. Further multiple comparisons tests were
analysed to determine the level employees perceive organisational
technology supports organisational objectives at the individual level.
The findings suggest there were not:
 Significant differences between those who are satisfied with their
work performance and perceptions of business efficiency.
 There are no significant differences between groups for those who
believe their work productivity improves with IS and perceptions
of business efficiency.
 There is no significant difference between job satisfaction and
perceptions of business efficiency and business alignment (with
IS).
 There is no significant difference between individuals who felt
satisfied with their work performance and perceptions of
business efficiency and business alignment with (IS)

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Further analysis demonstrated that: where job satisfaction and work
productivity are combined and tested against perceptions of business
efficiency, job satisfaction and work productivity as a combination
accounted for 13.2% in the variance of perceived business efficiency and
this was a low to moderate positive significant relationship. In other
words, when employees perceive that there is job satisfaction and work
productivity (combined) this allows employees to perceive that there is
business efficiency in the organisation, which amounts to as much as 13.2
% as far as perceptions in business efficiency is concerned.
Moreover, work productivity and work performance combined
demonstrated to account for as much as 14.7% of the variance in
perceptions of business efficiency –and this too is a low to moderate
positive significant relationship. In other words, employees who perceive
that there is work productivity and work performance (combined)
identified and perceived that there is business efficiency in the
organisation by as much as 14.7%
Furthermore our analysis confirmed that there is a significant difference
between individuals who feel ‘neutral’ about whether their work
productivity improved with IS compared with others who ‘strongly
agree’, with respect to perceptions of business efficiency and business
alignment.
In other words those who strongly agree, that their work productivity
improved with IS were more likely to perceive there is business efficiency
and business alignment in the organisation. There is also a significant
difference between individuals who ‘mildly agree’ that their work
productivity improved with IS compared with those who ‘strongly agree’
–so far as perceptions of business efficiency and business alignment is
concerned. In other words, the individuals who ‘strongly agree’ that their
work productivity improves with IS are more likely to perceive that there
is business efficiency and business alignment in the organisation compared
to those who answered ‘mildly agree’.
The main findings from the above analyses supports the notion for top
management in organisations to undertake strategic systems analyses
(Laudon and Laudon, 2014) in order to ensure IS aligns effectively for the
business to achieve business efficiency or competitive advantage.
Executing strategic systems analyses affected perceptions of business
efficiency, as well as, perceptions of IS and business alignment between
groups; it also contributed to perceptions of worker productivity
(marginally significant) and job satisfaction (significantly). Consequently,
the findings highlighted the need to undertake strategic systems analyses,
in order for individuals to perceive IS meets individual objectives at work.

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Attitudes towards technology and experiencing technostress
Analyses were conducted to determine whether attitudes towards IS affects the level of
felt technostress by professionals. We tested variables such as ‘finding it easy to identify
useful information’ using IS; ‘feeling at ease about one’s privacy’ using IS; feeling
‘comfortable’ using IS; and being ‘satisfied’ with IS against technostress.
‘Comfort using IS’ demonstrated to be the only significant relationship between attitudes
towards IS and technostress. The other three variables (indentifying useful information
with IS; feeling at ease about one’s privacy when using IS; and satisfaction with IS) did
not support significant relationships.
Comfort using IS, accounts for 7.6% of the variance in attitudes towards IS, and
technostress. The finding demonstrated that as comfort using IS increases the incidence of
technostress decreases (because the relationship was a low to moderate negative
relationship). The implication of this finding implies that it is imperative that employees
in organisations feel comfortable while using the organisational IS which they are tasked
with, and management should ensure that employees feel comfortable while using the IS.
Identifying information and IS
Further analyses were carried out to determine if there are significant relationships
between different sets of groups based on their responses. The analyses determined that
there were significant differences between groups regarding their responses so far as
‘finding it easy to indentify useful information’ and feelings of technostress between: a)
those who answered ‘mildly disagree’(that they find it easy to identify useful
information using IS) and those who answered ‘neutral’ –by about 1.2 times; b) those
who answered ‘mildly disagree’ and those who answered ‘mildly agree’ – by about 1.2
times c) those who answered ‘mildly disagree’ and those who answered ‘agree’ – by
about 1.2 times d) those who answered ‘mildly disagree’ and those who ‘strongly agree’
-by about 1.1 times. Furthermore, those who ‘mildly disagree’ that they do not find it
easy to indentify useful information using IS are almost twice as likely to experience
technostress compared to the other groups where there are significant differences above.

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Privacy and IS
There were significant differences between those who feel at ease about their privacy
between those who answered ‘mildly disagree’ and those who ‘mildly agree’. This finding
demonstrated that: individuals in the mildly disagree group are more than half as likely to
experience more technostress, than those who mildly agree. This implies that organisations
should take steps towards making individuals feel at ease about their privacy.
Comfort using IS
On the basis of the responses given, there were significant differences between those who answered: a) they feel ‘neutral’ using IS and those who ‘strongly
agree’ –by more than half as much; b) those who answered they ‘mildly agree’ that they feel comfortable using IS versus those who answered ‘agree’ -by
more than half as much; c) those who responded ‘mildly agree’ versus those who chose ‘strongly agree’ as a response regarding their comfort level using IS
–by more than half as much. The findings imply that those who feel less comfortable using IS are more likely to feel technostress than those who strongly
agree that they feel comfortable using IS. As it has already been stated, organisations should do their upmost to ensure their employees feel comfortable
while they use IS.
Organisational technology and firm competitiveness
Perceptions of business efficiency
The analysis demonstrated there is a moderate to substantial significant relationship
between perceptions of business efficiency and individuals’ perceptions of firm
competiveness / whether individuals believe the IS in the organisation makes the
firm competitive. The analysis demonstrated that that perceptions of business
efficiency account for as much as 24.9% so far as organisational technology and firm
competitiveness is concerned. Once more, this finding highlights the need for
management to carry out strategic systems analyses. The reasons for suggesting this
is because, undertaking strategic systems analyses accounts for the level of perceived
business efficiency substantially.

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Understanding why I use IS
Further analyses were carried out to determine if there are significant relationships between different sets of
groups based on their responses for ‘whether management has communicated to them’: so that they
understand why they use IS (at work); how they are expected to use IS; why management wishes to change
IS (whenever there is the need for restructuring of IS; new implementations etc.); when management wishes
to change IS; and how to use any changed IS (after restructuring IS; after implementation etc).
The analyses for whether individuals understand why they are using IS because it has been communicated
by management demonstrated that there are significant differences between those who a) answered that
they ‘disagree’ that management has not communicated to them in a way which lets them understand why
they are using IS and those who answered ‘strongly agree’ –by almost twice as much; b) those who
responded ‘mildly agree’ and those who ‘strongly agree’ -by almost twice as much; c) those who choose
‘neutral’ and versus those who responded ‘strongly agree’ –by twice as much; and d) ‘mildly agree’ and
those who ‘strongly agree’ –by almost twice as much. These findings indicate the importance of ensuring
that employees are communicated to so that they do understand why they are using IS, because it makes
twice as much a significant difference between those who strongly believe the firm is efficient and those who
do not with regards to perceptions of business efficiency.
How I am expected to use IS
The analyses for whether individuals know how they are expected to use IS because this has been clearly
communicated to them by management demonstrated significant differences between those who a) answered
that they ‘mildly disagree and those who ‘agree’ –by twice as much; b) those who ‘mildly disagree’ and
those ‘strongly agree’ –by twice as much; and c) those who responded ‘neutral’ and those who answered
‘strongly agree’ – by twice as much. The implication of these findings suggests the importance for
organisational decision makers to demonstrate and clearly communicate how employees are expected to use
IS if there are to be perceptions of business efficiency and competitiveness. Moreover, the analyses
demonstrates that those who are clearly communicated to about how they are expected to use the IS in the
organisation showed they perceive the business to be twice as competitive and efficient compared to the
other groups.

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Why management wishes to change IS
The analyses for whether individuals have been communicated to about why management
wishes to change IS demonstrated significant relationships between those who a) answered
‘disagree’ and those who responded ‘agree’ – by twice as much b) those who responded
‘disagree’ and those who answered ‘strongly agree’ – by three and a half times as much; c)
those who answered ‘mildly disagree’ and those who responded ‘agree’ –by more than one a
half times as much; d) those who answered ‘mildly disagree’ and those who responded
‘strongly agree’ – by more than two and a half times as much; and e) those who replied
‘mildly agree’ and those who ‘strongly agree’ –by more than one a half times as much. The
implications of these findings suggest it is imperative for management to communicate why
they wish to change IS in the organisation because it affects perceptions of business
efficiency by more than one a half times as much to three and a half times as much between
those who ‘strongly agree’, and ‘agree’ (that management have communicated to them about
why they wish to change IS), -and between all other groups mentioned above.
When management wishes to change IS
The analyses for whether individuals have been communicated to about when management
wishes to change IS demonstrated significant relationships between those who a) replied
‘disagree’ and those who responded ‘agree’ – by more than twice as much; b) those who
answered ‘disagree’ and those who responded ‘strongly agree’ –by more than two and a half
times as much; c) those who replied ‘mildly disagree’ and those who stated ‘strongly agree’
–by more than one and a half times as much. The implications of these findings means that it
is imperative for management to communicate when they wish to make changes to IS in
their organisation since it affects perceptions of business efficiency and whether individuals
believe the firm is competitive. The findings demonstrates that that communicating when
management wishes to make changes affected perceptions of competitiveness by as much as
twice as much between groups who were strongly communicated to, in comparison to other
groups.

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How to use any changed IS
The analyses for whether individuals have
been communicated to about how to use
changed IS demonstrated significant
relationships between those who a) replied
‘disagree’ and those who answered ‘strongly
agree’ –by twice as much; b) those who
responded ‘mildly disagree’ and those who
stated ‘agree’ –by more than one a half times
as much c) those who replied ‘mildly
disagree’ and those stated ‘strongly agree’ –
by more than two and a half times as much; d)
those who answered ‘neutral’ and those who
replied ‘agree’ –by more than one and a half
times as much; e) those who responded
‘neutral’ and those who stated ‘strongly agree’
–by twice as much; and f) those who replied
‘mildly agree’ and those who stated ‘strongly
agree’ – by twice as much. These findings
suggest the importance of communicating to
employees how to use any changed IS
because it affects perceptions of business
efficiency and in turn affects whether
individuals in the organisation perceive the
firm to be competitive. This highlights the
need for management to consider the costs of
IS post implementation and ensure that they
ease their employees through the
implementation process.
Demographics and experiencing
technostress
We sought analyses to determine whether
demographic characteristics affect the level of
technostress felt for individuals. We explored
whether there were any cause and effect due
to age and technostress; gender and
technostress; seniority (i.e. rank / position in
an organisation) and technostress; sector and
technostress; and level of service and
technostress. We also sought to clarify
whether there were any linear relationships
between the aforementioned demographic
variables.
Age and technostress
With regards to age and technostress, there
were only significant differences between a)
25-34 year olds and 45-54 year olds – by more
than half as much –regarding felt levels
technostress experienced; b) between 25-34
year olds and 55-64 year olds –by more than
half as much. The implication here is that age
does affect the level of technostress felt for
some age groups. The older one got the more
likely they are to feel technostress which was
found to be between two groups. However,
there were no significant differences between
18-24 year olds and all other age groups with
regards to the level of technostress
experienced. There were no further,
statistically significant differences between age
groups to report.
Gender and technostress
There were no significant differences between
gender and the level of technostress
experienced.

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Seniority and technostress
The analyses demonstrated that there were
significant differences between a) those
employed in supervisory roles and those
employed in senior management roles – by
more than half as much b) between
professional and senior management roles –by
more than half as much c) between
management and senior management roles –
by almost half as much. There were no
significant differences between clerical
employees and all other groups.
The implication of this finding suggest that
with the exception of clerical roles, those
employed in senior management roles are
more likely to experience technostress than
other occupational groups. Such a finding
could be due to the role / responsibilities of
senior managers. If this is the case then senior
managers could reduce the technostress they
may experience through delegating more
responsibilities. Furthermore senior managers
could undertake the precautions such as
literacy facilitation, technical support
provision, technology involvement
facilitation, and innovation support to reduce
their felt levels of technostress. It also implies
that, the role / responsibilities of senior
managers today, require them to use
technology to the point where they experience
technostress compared to other occupational
groups.
Sector and technostress
The analyses demonstrated that there are
significant differences between individuals in
public and private sector and the level of
technostress experienced. Those in the public
sector experienced about half as much less
(mean difference) technostress than those in
the private sector. The implication of this
finding suggests that there is likely to be more
of an imperative for technology to be a driver
in the private sector compared to the public
sector, where technology is deemed more as a
mechanism to meet organisational demands.
Unfortunately, in this study there were not
many individuals employed outside the public
and private sector for us to compare findings
for the levels of technostress felt in other
sectors.
Length of service and technostress
There were no significant differences to report
between length of service and the level of
technostress experienced.
Linear analysis demographics and
experiencing technostress
The linear analyses undertaken determined that
there are significant relationships between
demographic groups and technostress. Age and
sector demonstrated significant linear
relationships with technostress. Age accounts
for 4.2 % in the level of technostress felt with a
low to moderate substantial relationship –
which indicates that the older one got the more
technostress they are likely to experience.
Sector accounts for 4% of the level of
technostress felt, at a low to moderate
substantial relationship. We know that the
technostress examined in this study, occurs
more for private sector individuals than it does
for public sector individuals. The research of
Tarafdar et al., (2011) (who did an extensive
study on technostress and how to inhibit
technostress) did not explore sector groups –
and therefore this is a contribution to the
literature.

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Technology and 24 hour working culture
Do employees feel the need to always be connected?
This part of the analyses sought to address whether individuals have a
dependency to always be connected through technology. We tested
whether there are significant relationships between work family conflict
(which equates to doing work in one’s time away from the work
environment), personal life identification (concerning oneself with
endeavours unrelated to work), family work conflict (which relates to
conducting personal matters unrelated to work in the work
environment) and connectivity.
Work family conflict and connectivity
The results demonstrated a substantial to very strong relationship
between work family conflict and the need to always be connected. In
other words, the more an individual engages in behaviour which
conflicts with their non working life (i.e. home life) the more an
individual engages in behaviour which has them responding and
connecting in real time. Furthermore, work family conflict accounted
for 31.4% in the variance of feeling the need to always be connected.
This finding confirms the trend of a 24 hour working culture today, and
the need for some individuals to always be connected.
Personal life identification and connectivity
The personal life identification analyses sought to explore the extent to which individuals valued their personal time
over being connected at all times. The findings demonstrated a negative to moderate substantial significant
relationship between personal life identification (i.e. refraining from working in one’s personal time) and feeling the
need to always be connected. Negative relationships imply that for e.g. as value ‘A’ is increasing, a corresponding
value ‘B’ is decreasing. In other words, this is an interesting finding because it implies the more an individual spends
on her/his personal life the less they will engage in behaviour which has them responding and connecting in real time.
Accordingly, this should leave individuals more resources to dedicated to their individual pursuits (Hetch and Allen,
2009; Dewe and Cooper, 2012).

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Family work conflict and connectivity
The family work conflict analyses sought to determine the level at which individuals feel the need to be connected,
however, in this case, whether personal life objectives takes precedence over work objectives during work time. The
analysis demonstrated a low to moderate insignificant relationship between family work conflict and the need to be
connected because of personal matters at work. Furthermore this finding accounted for a small percentage of the variance
(i.e. 1.8%) in feeling the need to be connected by scheduling personal matters at work. This further confirms the
asymmetric relationship in the employment relationship (i.e. –work permeates non work boundaries but rarely the other
way around). A similar finding is also highlighted by Hetch and Allen (2009).
Is connectivity a current theme of working culture or is connectivity due to implicit expectations?
The quantitative analysis demonstrated a correlative relationship between work family conflict and
connectivity; personal life identification and connectivity. In other words the more the activities of
work family conflict increased, the more connectivity increased for individuals. However, the more
personal life identification activities occurs, individuals feel less need to be connected through
technology 24/7 (because of the negative relationship between the two variables).
The qualitative analysis demonstrated that being connected and being accessible through
technology is a current theme of working culture. One of the most occurring themes identified in
our analyses for responding to out of hours messages was in line with the theme of ‘job
identification’ and therefore because it is a requirement of the role, it becomes an obligation, an
expectation of sorts which individuals must fulfil. Job identification is also linked with other themes
which were identified in the analyses (such as: team working, and planning ahead) by participants
of this study and further corroborates the notion that being connected / replying in real time to work
related information is a current theme of work culture.
Furthermore, the findings do suggest there are implicit expectations for why individuals have
adopted these pro-social behaviours. Many participants identified with themes of business
necessities, conscientiousness, team working etc. Consequently, responding in real time is not just a
current theme of work culture, but implicit expectations drives such behaviours which is tied into
the psychology, perceptions, and expectations of individuals’. These lead individuals to seek
ambition; not let colleagues down through perceptions of team working; and through the perceived
fear of reprisal, behave pro-socially.

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Does increased use of technology cause
negative emotions?
At this point of our study our analyses sought to
examine whether increasing one’s use of
technology causes negative emotions or not.
We tested linear relationships between role
conflict, work family conflict and personal life
identification against negative emotions derived
from increased use of technology. Role conflict
was selected as a variable because: role conflict
pertains to the ambiguity individuals feel when
they are pulled in different directions, and it is
our slant that experiencing role conflict is likely
to lead to feelings of negative emotions. Work
family conflict was selected as a variable
because work family conflict derives from
being torn between work and home and
therefore consequences related to work family
conflict could also lead to negative emotions.
Personal life identification was selected as a
variable with the premise that: -the more one
engages with technology (for work purposes),
the fewer resources one has to fulfil personal
objectives unrelated to work. In this respect,
neglect in the area of personal life objectives
should also corroborate with negative emotions.
Role conflict
Role conflict demonstrated a 7.4% significant
positive relationship in the variance of negative
emotions and this is a low to moderate
relationship. In other words, the finding
suggests that increased use of technology does
cause role conflict. Role conflict has also been
associated with negative emotions in other
studies, such as that by Tarafdar et al., (2011)
and Dewe and Cooper (2012) and lends itself to
the ambiguity individuals feel when they are
pulled in multiple directions.
Work family conflict
Work family conflict demonstrated a 4.5%
significant relationship in the variance of
negative emotions and this is a low to
moderate relationship. The finding suggests
that the more an individual engages with
technology, the greater the likelihood of him/
her experiencing work family conflict. In other
words, the finding suggests that although the
relationship between increasing one’s use of
technology causes a moderate relationship, so
far as negative emotions are concerned,
increasing one’s use of technology does cause
work family conflict (i.e. increasing one’s use
of technology causes one to often work from
home etc.) In Hetch and Allen’s (2009)
research, work family conflict is not explicitly
associated with negative emotions, although
the authors do suggest that excessive use of
technology to the point where it leads to work
family conflict is resource draining. Clarke’s
(2000) research did confirm negative emotions
in correspondence with work family conflict.
The finding in this report lends itself to the fact
that individuals need to set time for themselves
if they are to decrease negative emotions they
feel arising from increased use of technology
and work family conflict.

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Personal life identification
Personal life identification demonstrated a 5.1% significant relationship in the variance of negative emotions and this is a low to moderate negative
relationship. This finding suggests that the more individuals engaged with technology the less time they had to fulfil their personal life objectives. The finding
in this report contributes to Hetch and Allen’s (2009) research. In their research (Hetch and Allen, 2009) the authors’ findings demonstrated that increase in
work family conflict reduces the resources for personal life objectives. Moreover, this finding corroborates with the need for individuals to effectively manage
their time and for individuals to decrease any negative emotions which may arise as a result of increasing use of technology, where they begin to feel their
personal life is being affected.
General satisfaction levels towards IS
The descriptive analysis (i.e. pie chart) provides details of overall employees’
general satisfaction levels towards information systems. The feelings towards
information systems are largely positive. 9.28% of respondents ticked
‘strongly agreed’ for all four questions on the IS Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction
scale. The mean (5.4201) also confirmed general positive attitudes towards IS.
Furthermore, there is the possibility that when those with low scores (in terms
of their satisfaction levels) have to work faster, or more, they are likely to
experience technostress much easier, than those with higher levels of
satisfaction.
Figure 1. 2 Pie chart: Attitudes towards IS, Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction
7 point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree

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Well being and work: Towards a balanced agenda: Negative stress, coping strategies, positive stress, and coping effectiveness.
This part of our studies was concerned with how individuals
overcome negative stress (which we defined in the study ‘as state
of intense and aversive tension, which the subject strongly
wants to avoid’ (Grief, 1991)) at work and explored the routes of
coping strategies which they utilise. We also explored positive
stress (which we defined as ‘an outcome of an encounter which
is appraised by the subject as ‘positive’ that preserves well-
being or promises to do so, and induces the presence of
pleasurable and psychological states and attitudes), and the
accompanying mindsets individuals adopt to ensure they
achieve work task / goals. In conjunction with exploring
coping strategies, we also considered ‘coping effectiveness’
which seeks to determine how satisfactorily the encounter was
resolved (Long, 1993) or the extent to which coping strategies
were helpful in reducing stress (Bar-Tal and Spitzer 1994).

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Coping Strategies
The results from our analyses demonstrated that there were five
noteworthy combinations of coping strategies (i.e. –they account
for over 5% of cases mentioned –highlighted in red) by respondents
in this study for how they deal with negative emotions at work.
These five combinations account for 74.2% of the total responses
given. Mental strategies / self talk accounted for 16.5 % of
responses; taking action was the given response in 21.6% of cases;
putting the negative emotions out of one’s mind was the highest
response rate and accounted for 23.7%; mental strategies / self talk,
taking action and taking charge accounted for 5.2% of responses
and lastly; mental strategies / self talk and taking action accounted
for 7.2% of cases.
Table 1.2 Multiple response analysis: Coping strategies. Dealing with negative
emotions at work

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Furthermore, we also analysed this set of
comparative data using multiple response
analysis because we wanted to acknowledge
which responses are most occurring when
participants are given the option to choose more
than one answer. Tables 1.3 tells us that ‘taking
action’ is the most occurring response given
(occurring in 30.8% of cases), followed by
mental strategies / self talk (25.9% of cases) and
‘putting [negative emotions] out of one’s mind’
represented in 21.7% of cases respectively. The
finding suggests that mental strategies / self talk
and taking action are methods employed by
many to overcome negative emotions at work.
The reasons for this could be a factor which is
realised in Hetch and Allen’s (2009) research
when the authors advocated that due to the roles
most employees have in organisations, they are
mostly subservient and therefore expressing
ones’ opinions when negative emotions do arise
may not always be the best tactic to employ in
the given situation. Furthermore, in a different
multiple response analyses test we conducted, we
realise that a ‘problem focused approach’
(representing 58.8% of cases) is the most
occurring answer given by respondents for how
they deal with negative emotions at work.
Tables 1.3 Multiple response analysis, combined frequencies: Coping strategies. Dealing with
negative emotions at work

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Experiencing negative emotions; achieving work task / goals; and
having a strong mindset
In this part of our study we examined how individuals responded to
negative emotions at work by exploring the five technostress creating
conditions: techno-overload, techno-invasion, techno-complexity, techno-
insecurity, and techno-uncertainty. We also explored factors which enable
individuals to achieve tasks/ goals at work. Moreover, we also sought to
determine the variable(s) which enable individuals to have a ‘strong
mindset / way of thinking’.
Techno-invasion represented the only significant technostress relationship,
and this signified a negative relationship. The negative relationship
indicates that the more individuals feel that they face techno-invasion, the
less they are able to deal with the negative emotions arising from techno-
invasion.
Furthermore job identification, which is associated with having clear
boundaries and separating home life from work life, significantly
corroborated with achieving work goals / tasks. This finding suggests that
although the majority of people in this survey answered that they are
always multi-tasking and let work boundaries permeate their non work
boundaries / vice versa –it actually helps to have defined boundaries.
Moreover, personal life identification was the only variable which
demonstrated a significant relationship with ‘having a strong mindset /
way of thinking’. This is a low to moderate positive relationship. This
finding indicates the importance of having personal time for oneself and
the freedom to fulfil objectives unrelated to work.
Coping effectiveness
For the most part, there were not significant differences between groups
and the methods of coping strategies employed. However, significant
differences occurred between eight sets of groups. It is important to
remember here that the coping strategy used and the coping effectiveness
achieved, ultimately depends on the individual and although, one method
of coping may demonstrate to be significantly different from another, this
does not necessarily mean it is a better or worse method than a different
method of coping used. Each coping method can prove effective or
detrimental, depending on the individual, situation and context. Therefore
discretion is advised when comparing differences between coping
effectiveness.

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Organisational technology and perceptions of business efficiency at the group level
Achieving organisational objectives at the group level
In order to meet one of our research aims regarding whether employees
perceive that organisational technology helps to meet organisational
objectives at the group level, we tested ‘perceptions of business efficiency’
against ‘decision scheme satisfaction’, ‘sense of belonging’, ‘goal
commitment’ and ‘trust in peers’. This analysis helped to determine the
level at which technology contributes to achieving group objectives. The
findings indicated that perceptions of business efficiency ranged from as
high as 19.9% (goal commitment) to as low as 10.2 % (trust in peers) in
the variance of whether individuals believed technology was helping to
meet objectives at the group level, with a moderate to substantial positive
relationship in both goal commitment and trust in peers. Furthermore, the
findings indicated there is a moderate to substantial positive relationship in
conjunction with feeling a ‘sense of belonging’ and perceptions of
business efficiency. The findings demonstrate the importance of
undertaking strategic systems analyses in organisations.
Discussion of linear analyses
Linear analyses were undertaken to determine whether individuals’
perceive problem solving at the group level as ‘efficient’, ‘coordinated’
‘fair’ and ‘satisfying’ and how these perceptions of ‘efficiency’,
‘coordination’, ‘fairness’ and ‘satisfaction’ affect levels of ‘sense of
belonging’, ‘goal commitment’ and ‘trust in peers’ within groups. The
variables ‘sense of belonging’, ‘goal commitment’ and ‘trust in peers’
were analysed to ascertain the level at which these variables are important
to problem solving.
Sense of belonging
The findings indicated that the variables associated with problem solving
such as efficiency, coordination, fairness, and satisfaction influence sense
of belonging substantially. ‘Satisfaction’ in this study accounted for 27.9%
in the variance of sense of belonging, followed by efficiency, fairness and
coordination of the groups’ problem solving processes. Furthermore
satisfaction demonstrated a substantial to very strong relationship so far as
sense of belonging is concerned at group level. This finding indicates the
importance of efficiency, coordination, fairness and satisfaction in
organisations because it affects sense of belonging and sense of belonging
is important for the groups’ decision problem solving processes.
Moreover, this finding signifies the need for management to pay particular
attention to the type of group / teams (Haines, 2014) available in the
organisation in order that management can effectively encourage
organisational team / groups to fulfil their potential.

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Goal commitment
The ‘coordination’ of the problem solving process demonstrated to be the lowest
influence at 9.4% of the four problem solving variables which affect the level of
goal commitment at the group level. This is a low to moderate relationship. The
variable which has the most influence on goal commitment is illustrated in this
study once again as ‘satisfaction’, and satisfaction accounted for 26.2% in the
variance of goal commitment, and again this is a substantial to strong relationship.
The finding illustrates that management should determine the type of teams /
groups present in their organisation. Furthermore, management can learn to
classify their groups / teams (by reviewing Haines (2014) research) into categories
such as: task superstars, fast learners, weak link, roller coaster, or slow learners
and this should help them delineate how best to ensure the group fulfils its
potential /reach higher performance levels.
Trust in Peers
The four problem solving variables (efficiency, coordination, fairness,
satisfaction) demonstrated strong to very strong relationships in the
variance of trust in peers. Trust in peers correlated much higher than goal
commitment or sense of belonging with respect to problem solving
processes at the group level. Efficiency accounted for 27.3%; coordination
44.7%; fairness 35.2%; and satisfaction 34.2% in the variance in the level
of trust in peers. Furthermore this finding demonstrates how important trust
in peers is for groups / teams to achieve task completion. The finding also
lends itself to the fact that management should cultivate an environment
where teams / groups have clear and specific goals; team / group members
should be encouraged to communicate with each other (Haines, 2014) and
therefore achieve more solidarity in the team / group and feel comfortable
in the knowledge that others will perform their role. Furthermore these
findings signify how essential efficiency, coordination, fairness and
satisfaction is for individuals to feel they belong to the team / group;
become committed to organisational goals and trust in their peers in order
to complete assigned organisational tasks.

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Exploring work and non work boundaries
Technostress and the achievement of personal life objectives
In this part of our study we undertook
mediation analyses to determine whether a
relationship exists between technostress and
the achievement of personal life objectives
when individuals allow work boundaries to
permeate non work boundaries. Mediation
analysis helps clarify whether the independent
variable has an effect on the mediator, which
in turn has an effect on the dependent variable.
In other words, undertaking mediation analyses
should help explain whether technostress has
an effect on work family conflict, which in
turn has an effect on personal life identification
/ the achievement of personal life objectives.
The findings demonstrated that a relationship
does exist between personal life identification
and technostress. This is a significant negative
relationship and implies that the more
technostressed an individual is, -the fewer
resources they have available for personal life
objectives. Moreover, a relationship exists
between technostress (independent variable)
and work family conflict (mediator) with
respect to the fact that the more technostressed
one felt, the more work family conflict an
individual could be experiencing.
Lastly, a relationship exists between the work
family conflict and personal life identification
when the effect of the technostress is
controlled for; furthermore technostress added
very little influence to personal life
identification beyond that of work family
conflict in the (fourth) final step of mediation.
This would indicate that the effects of
technostress on accomplishment of personal
life objectives were mediated by work family
conflict. In other words a relationship exists
between technostress and the achievement of
personal life objectives when individuals allow
work boundaries to permeate their non work
boundaries. Moreover, the findings
demonstrated that the effect of technostress on
personal life objectives is mediated through
work family conflict by as much as 96.5%.

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Sustaining high productivity and achieving work life balance
In order to sustain high work productivity, many findings in this
study corroborate with the fact that individuals need to prioritise,
set boundaries for themselves, and most importantly communicate
their viewpoints when it comes to aspects which affect working
life. These principles were also given by many respondents of the
study’s survey. The advice above also applies to achieving work
life balance. It is important to prioritise, set boundaries, and
communicate personal matters with one’s inner support hub.
Findings in this study also demonstrated how important achieving
personal life objectives are. In other words the achievement of
personal life objectives significantly correlated with having a
strong mindset for overcoming setbacks. This means it is important
to have time to fulfil objectives unrelated to work!

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Development of Conceptual model
This section of the report proposes a conceptual model which is adapted from Laudon and Laudon (2014) and developed to address the challenges in
the organisation-technology perspective and the employee-technology perspective, as well as, the findings outlined in this study. The conceptual model
is termed: ‘The Cooperative Relationship’ and contains ten principles (outlined in the “Recommendations Explained” section, pp. 37 -47) which aim to
promote the achievement and betterment of technology and information systems for all. The concept of the cooperative relationship, advocates the
promotion of cooperative relationships between all organisational actors.
Figure 1. 3 The Cooperative relationship conceptual model and business ecosystem

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The Cooperative relationship model
Explanation of the model and business ecosystem
In order to mitigate the challenges faced during
IS implementation for business firms, we
propose the cooperative relationship model
(depicted in figure 1.3). The cooperative
relationship builds on our two models
presented earlier, as well as, the findings in this
report. However the differences between the
cooperative relationship model and the
organisation-technology perspective and
employee-technology perspective are:
 Each variable (“Technology” etc.) is in
a circle rather than a rectangle. The
circles denote that information should
flow in all directions rather than the
previous rigid nature. The circle also
signifies that: each individual,
irrespective of organisational status
has a vested responsibility, where
technology, information systems,
business solutions, business
challenges, management, the
organisation and other employees are
concerned, -to promote the furtherance
of each of the aforementioned
variables because they are all
interconnected and it is no longer
acceptable to shirk responsibility
because of status or deny another
because of their status. This is the
essence of the cooperative
relationship.
 Management, organisation, and
employee are in the same circle.
Although management remain
responsible for overall decision
making, we propose that management
should actively seek and receive input
from employees and vice versa. This is
possible with an open atmosphere
where individuals are free to voice
opinions without fear of reprisal or
unconstructive criticism. Moreover,
we encourage the active exercise of
imagination, discussions of coping
effectiveness, profiling IS user types,
profiling groups and teams, and
conducting strategic analyses. The
above mentioned variables are
discussed in the “Recommendations
Explained” section.
The labels around the variables (“Technology”
etc.) have been extensively explained in the
“Recommendations Explained” section and
therefore will not be discussed at length here to
avoid repetition. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy
to mention other principles which promote the
cooperative relationship involve:
 Selecting technology which meets
strategic imperatives as well as end
user satisfaction.
 Conducting strategic analyses ensures
end users are thoroughly prepared for
the implementation of new technology.
 Improving levels of efficiency,
coordination, fairness and satisfaction.
These four variables signify one of the
most important findings of this study.
Furthermore, if organisations actively pursue
the ten recommendations outlined in the
“Recommendations Explained” section, and
strike the appropriate balance for their business
and technology needs, then the organisation
will not only be practicing the cooperative
relationship, but, the organisation is likely to
be very successful.
Finally, the smaller cooperative relationship
models around the main image depicted in the
centre represents other firms within the
business’ ecosystem adopting principles of the
cooperative relationship. We hypothesise that
when adjacent firms in a business’ ecosystem
adopt the cooperative relationship model,
eventually, this may help to shape business and
working culture, so far as the adoption and
implementation of technology and information
systems are concerned.

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Recommendations Explained
Activity
Share the results of this research with HR practitioners to
further understanding of how information systems affect
employees in the work place.
Undertake Strategic Systems Analyses
How HR team to share the results of this research with Directors.
Encourage Directors to discuss findings in this research with Senior
management team to highlight the possibilities of how
recommendations made in this research can shape business strategy
and lead to smoother business operations. Academics have a duty to
corroborate findings in this research, promote this research, and
undertake further research of this nature. Furthermore, Academics can
influence their contacts regarding the value of this research.
Communicate clearly to employees: organisational objectives for IS
so that employees understand WHY they are using IS; HOW
employees are expected to use IS to achieve objectives; WHY
management wishes to change IS (when the opportunity occurs);
WHEN management wishes to change IS; and HOW to use any
changed IS. These discussions can occur during organisational
meetings. Furthermore, internal questionnaires can help gauge general
attitudes of employees towards IS in the organisation.
Why Results of this report have confirmed the importance of: undertaking
strategic systems analyses; profiling IS user types; adopting methods
which inhibit technostress; Senior managers experiencing
technostress comparatively more than other occupational groups;
discussing coping effectiveness; setting boundaries between work and
non work; and profiling groups / teams in organisations.
Perceptions of business efficiency affects whether individuals believe
organisational IS helps to meet individual objectives and this affects
firm competitiveness and efficiency. Undefined IS strategies are
costly for business firms.
Who Initiated by HR team, delivered in conjunction with support from
Senior managers to board of Directors. Academics should corroborate
and promote the findings of this research.
HR Managers, Senior Managers, IT managers, Accountancy and
Finance managers should have meetings regarding how best to
undertake their strategic systems analyses
Costs and resources
required
No administration cost if PowerPoint presentation used.
Obtain copy of results and the full report by visiting:
https://www.dropbox.com/sh/44p4gxrztxfhw90/AAD1-tPsO7-
fqJXCrnPtEAdha?dl=0 or email c.tetebo@live.co.uk –and Charles
will provide a free copy. He is also happy to answer any questions
relating to this study.
Questionnaire(s) – for example fluid surveys provides support for
£388.25 per year, tailored to organisational needs.
http://fluidsurveys.com/pricing/
Quarter year meetings: approximately £82.06 per hour (estimation
based on hourly average wage of 1 HR manager; 1 Accountancy and
Finance manager, 1 IT manager, and 1 Senior manager combined)
Timing HR to arrange meeting with Directors as soon as diaries permit.
Arrange slot in next forthcoming Senior management team meeting.
Every 3 months –feedback from organisational staff should allow
Senior management to determine the level at which IS aligns with
business objectives and make changes accordingly or stick to current
methods of business practice because satisfaction and efficiency
levels are high.
Barriers to
implementation
To maximise credibility and impact of results, identify objective facts
accompanied by supporting evidence. Ensure HR reads all four
journals recommended in this Recommendation section (regarding:
profiling IS users; technostress; and group / team profiling). Seek
views of Senior management team and suggestions for improvements
to encourage buy-in and avoid future resistance to change.
Employees may not always agree with directions management wish to
take concerning IS improvements / upgrades /
implementations. Feelings of technostress may surface from
employees and may hinder progress. It is important to address all
concerns and reassure employees of the benefits of new IS; ensure
training is provided if this is a requirement and emphasise personal
advantages / transferable skills employees will gain.

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Activity
Profile IS user types Adopt methods which inhibit technostress
How HR managers and IT managers should read Managing Culture Creep:
Toward a Strategic model of User IT Culture by Walsh, Kefi and
Baskerville (2010) and learn about the 9 IS User types and design
questionnaire(s) to meet organisation needs, as well as engage with senior
managers to manage IS user types in the organisation. If possible, contact
any of the three named researchers regarding the possibility to use the
questionnaire administered by the authors /enquire if the questionnaire
meets the organisation’s business needs.
 Educate one on what technostress is. HR managers should read
Crossing to the Dark Side: Examining Creators, Outcomes and
Inhibitors of Technostress by Tarafdar et al. (2011) and The effects of
Technostress within the context of employee use of ICT by Fulsgeth
and Sørebø (2014). The first article provides a great introduction to
technostress. The second article helps managers to cope with
technostress and provides a questionnaire which managers can adapt
to monitor and regulate their levels of technostress. Taking these steps
should allow one to deduce when, how and why one is experiencing
technostress. Furthermore, share the knowledge of technostress, and
how to inhibit technostress far and wide and to all one comes in
contact with. Technostress can be reduced through literacy
facilitation, technological support provision, technological
involvement facilitation, innovation support, knowledge sharing and
‘creative’ sessions.
Why Profiling IS user types should form part of the strategic systems analyses.
Furthermore it helps an organisation to gauge ‘problem’ user types and
shape the organisation’s IS user culture for the purposes of successful IS
implementation. Profiling user types also helps with identifying
individuals likely to experience technostress –and this too can then be
managed appropriately.
Technostress is detrimental to achieving work tasks / goals, as well
as, detrimental to the health of individuals. Techno-invasion inhibits
one’s ability to deal with negative emotions effectively. Furthermore,
health risks associated with technostress are costly for business firms
and counterproductive to the aims which firms want to achieve
through the adoption of technology.
Who Ideally with input from IT managers, HR managers should write pro-
forma of the 9 IS user types for Senior managers to determine the IS user
culture in the organisation. HR managers should administer IS User
questionnaire electronically. Profile new and old recruits IS types, with
the aim of improving succession planning in the organisation.
Academics, management, employees, senior managers, and
technology developers should promote awareness of technostress.
ALL users of any technology have a vested interest to ensure any
negative consequences resulting from technology decreases
exponentially. Management and technology developers should
consider user friendly, age friendly, and group friendly IS.

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Costs and resources
required
Questionnaire(s) –fluid surveys provides support for £388.25 per year,
tailored to organisational needs. http://fluidsurveys.com/pricing/ Features
include unlimited questionnaires.
Cost of Journal: - £23.74, available at
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963868710000363
One can watch technology and new media documentaries such as
“Click” on BBC iPlayer or on YouTube. One can also keep up to date
with technology by reviewing websites such as
http://www.gizmag.com/ ; http://techcrunch.com/ and
http://www.newscientist.com/ - awareness of future avenues of
technology should help reduce techno-uncertainty, and techno-
insecurity. This is free. These are just examples, and there is a wealth
of information regarding new technologies online. Cost of
technostress journals: http://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2011/9/124153-
crossing-to-the-dark-side/abstract -£9.90 and £13.17
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563214004142
In house IT support –Average salary of IT professional £30,000
IT Outsourcing –varies from organisation to organisation. For
SME’s prices usually start at £26 per month to £490 per month
depending on service provided and type of business.
Timing Minimum: once a year. Ideally 6 monthly to determine any changes in
user culture. Better yet, 3 monthly in line with strategic systems analysis.
Monthly reviews: HR should distribute and collect completed
questionnaires regarding technostress from employees monthly. HR
should then discuss methods of decreasing technostress for employees
(in line with organisational objectives and agreed with Senior
managers). Employees should be allowed to voice concerns of
technostress at anytime without criticism of fear of reprisal.
Barriers to
implementation
Employees: may be resistant to this change. However, management
should encourage users that learning more about IS user needs allows
management to make decisions which benefits the organisation, and the
end user.
Management: Senior managers may not be aware of the benefits of
profiling IS user types. HR managers, IT managers, and Accountancy and
Finance managers must collaborate to inform Senior managers of the cost
benefits and advantages of IS user profiling.
Lack of awareness: not many individuals have heard of the term
technostress even though it is likely they have experienced
technostress. Nevertheless technostress needs to be taken seriously,
and recognising what technostress is should help in managing and
fostering better productive methods for decreasing technostress for
end users exponentially. Moreover, review of the technostress articles
recommended and completing the questionnaire should help signify
the prevalence of technostress for users.

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Activity
Senior managers should adopt strategies which inhibit
technostress, especially senior managers in the private sector
where there is greater emphasis on profit incentives
Discuss coping effectiveness strategies with all
organisation members
How Senior managers should undertake regular self-evaluation, detail and
review their work experiences in conjunction with their use of technology.
This could be achieved through journaling diary entries for five minutes
after work either physically or electronically. By reviewing the extent to
which technology is causing technostress for the Senior manager, the
Senior manager concerned should then be able to take appropriate steps to
reduce her / his levels of technostress whether this is by means of
delegating, literacy facilitation, technological support provision,
technological involvement facilitation, innovation support or perhaps,
hiring a personal assistant. Each person is unique and so are their
experiences and therefore the method for inhibiting technostress depends
on the person and the situation.
Top management should create an open organisational atmosphere
where employees can voice their concerns without criticism or
reprisal. HR managers should administer ‘Coping Effectiveness
Questionnaire’; discuss coping effectiveness methods used by
individuals in the organisation, and grade which coping strategies
help employees best. This can be achieved through ‘focused’
groups rather than 1-1 meetings to speed the process. The employee
also has a responsibility to log negative emotions at work clearly
and detail succinctly coping methods adopted and coping
effectiveness.
Why Senior managers are more likely to experience technostress more than
other occupational groups.
Approximately 25% of respondents to this study ‘put negative
emotions out of their mind’ at work. This cannot be conducive
employee well being. Organisations will lose talented employees if
not sooner, then eventually, if setbacks are not counselled.
Who Senior managers are primarily responsible for their health.
Heads of department under the direction of Senior managers could form
symbiotic relationships with Senior managers with the aim of helping to
reduce technostress for Senior managers / generally being concerned about
Senior managers overall well being. Personal Assistants / hiring PAs can
also ease the work burdens for senior managers.
Senior managers, HR managers and employees.
Costs and resources
required
Cost of physical diary –approximately £10 per diary.
Electronic entries –free of charge. Ensure this is password protected.
Personal Assistant: average salary £25, 548
Questionnaire(s) –fluid surveys provides support for £388.25 per
year. IBM SPSS statistics (data analytics software), – 12 month
subscription and yearly support for £3803.24
Timing Journaling daily diary entries: first thing after work, daily.
Review patterns which are causing technostress once per week.
Once per Month.
Barriers to
implementation
Resistance to change of Senior managers. As a Senior manager your
responsibilities to the organisation are just as important as your
responsibility for your health, if not more so. Therefore, technostress
creating conditions should not be taken lightly.
Cost of SPSS statistics. Nevertheless it is still important to conduct
coping effectiveness profiles in order to help employees improve
their coping strategies. Therefore Microsoft Excel could be used as
a substitute for SPSS, for data analytics.

41. 41 | P a g e
Activity
Set boundaries between work and non working time Reward pro-social behaviours
How A possibility is for organisations to adopt an auto-delete email policy
when individuals are away on holiday similar to Daimler. The link can be
found at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28786117 (BBC News,
2014) This should reduce techno-invasion for employees on holiday.
Working out of hours is currently part of work culture. Therefore the
researcher recommends that employees monitor the amount of time spent
working out of hours, and log diary entries accordingly. Employees should
then discuss their out of hours working with HR in monthly reviews. HR
or Accountancy and Finance (or both) should then device a planner which
ensures certain employees are not contacted AT ALL after hours and
everyone in the organisation has a ‘window’ i.e. a minimum fixed amount
of hours where no contact occurs per day -like a rota for contacting
employees out of hours. Furthermore the organisation should strongly
discourage employees from checking in on work when they are not
required to (some employees have a ‘belonging’ need) and encourage
these employees to concentrate on their personal lives. Remind employees
that concentrating on personal objectives helps with having a strong
mindset –and “the organisation values individuals with strong mindsets”.
Participants of this study provide useful advice for employees:
“Don't look at your device, look at your contract and reward policy. Also,
observe those who are known to work outside of the office - are they
valued, are they rewarded, what is said about them out of their earshot?
Often the habit to work outside of hours, slaved to a device is out of
misguided sense of belonging - a need to feel wanted and valued, when
really it shows an inability to manage time and workload effectively and
fear of being overlooked and considered incompetent” Female Clerical
Employee, UK.
“Try not to multitask, try to manage your time to do one thing at a time.
Turn communications off, or get a colleague to answer the phone for an
hour (do the same for them). You will get more done and be better able to
choose for yourself what you want to do in your own time.” Female
Professional, Education, UK
Rewarding pro-social behaviours does not have to be financial.
Recognising pro-social behaviours alone and saying “Thank you”
goes far in making people feel appreciated. However, the clincher
is for organisation heads to reciprocate pro-social behaviours, by
taking an active interest in the values of their employees. Therefore
benevolent behaviours can be reciprocated e.g. by learning when
the birthdays of pro-social employees occur, wishing them “Happy
Birthday” with e.g. half day off plus pay. Furthermore, these
rewards must continually change year on year to the values of
employees because this allows relationships to grow, rather than
become monotonous. Planning is therefore important because in the
example where the pro-social employee is permitted a half day off
with pay, there must be cover for this. Continually reviewing the
employment relationship with respect to pro-social behaviours is
important and ensures actors in the relationship are heard and have
their needs met to some extent.