2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Course Overview........................................................................................................................ 1
Unit 1: Course Introduction
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1.1
Decisions in Emergency Management.....................................................................................1.1
Case Study 1.1—Sebring County............................................................................................1.2
Decision Points......................................................................................................................... 1.3
What’s at Stake?...................................................................................................................... 1.3
About This Course....................................................................................................................1.4
Activities and Exercises............................................................................................................1.5
Job Aids.................................................................................................................................... 1.5
Knowledge Checks................................................................................................................... 1.5
Appendix.................................................................................................................................. 1.5
Course Objectives.................................................................................................................... 1.6
How Will You Benefit?..............................................................................................................1.6
How to Complete This Course..................................................................................................1.7
Sample Learning Schedule......................................................................................................1.8
Goal Setting.............................................................................................................................. 1.9
Activity: Personal Learning Goals..........................................................................................1.10
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 1.11
Unit 2: The Decision-Making Process
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 2.1
Problem Solving vs. Decision Making.......................................................................................2.1
Where Does the Process Begin?.............................................................................................2.2
Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation?...........................................................2.2
The Starting Point..................................................................................................................... 2.4
Recent Changes to Emergency Planning Requirements.........................................................2.6
Problem-Solving Model.......................................................................................................... 2.12
Step 1: Identify the Problem..................................................................................................2.13
Step 2: Explore Alternatives..................................................................................................2.16
Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options?............................................................................2.16
Step 3: Select an Alternative.................................................................................................2.20
Step 4: Implement the Solution.............................................................................................2.22
Activity: Implementing the Solution........................................................................................2.23
Step 5: Evaluate the Situation...............................................................................................2.27
Activity: Evaluating Your Solution..........................................................................................2.29
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 2.31
For More Information.............................................................................................................. 2.31
Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 2.32
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page i
3. COURSE OVERVIEW
Page
Unit 3: Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 3.1
What Is Psychological Type?...................................................................................................3.1
What Are Preferences?............................................................................................................3.2
Using Type Inventories to Determine Preferences...................................................................3.2
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ®............................................................................................3.3
Preferences and Decision Making............................................................................................3.4
Activity: Where Should You Flex?...........................................................................................3.5
Who Decides?.......................................................................................................................... 3.8
Successful Group Decision Making........................................................................................3.10
Activity: Individual or Group Decision?..................................................................................3.13
What Is an Effective Decision Maker?....................................................................................3.17
Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker...............................................................................3.17
Activity: Identifying Your Strengths and Limitations...............................................................3.19
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 3.20
For More Information.............................................................................................................. 3.20
Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 3.21
Unit 4: Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 4.1
What Is Ethics?........................................................................................................................ 4.1
Ethical Issues and Emergencies..............................................................................................4.2
Activity: Ethical Issues and Emergencies................................................................................4.3
Components of Ethical Decision Making..................................................................................4.6
Applying the Problem-Solving Model to Ethical Issues.............................................................4.7
Activity: Applying the Problem-Solving Model to Ethical Issues..............................................4.8
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 4.11
For More Information.............................................................................................................. 4.11
Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 4.12
Unit 5: Decision Making in an Emergency
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 5.1
Decision Making and Stress.....................................................................................................5.1
Case Study: Hurricane Hortence.............................................................................................5.3
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 5.10
Unit 6: Course Summary
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 6.1
The Decision-Making Process..................................................................................................6.1
The Problem-Solving Model.....................................................................................................6.2
Decision-Making Styles............................................................................................................6.3
Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker.................................................................................6.4
Ethical Decision Making............................................................................................................ 6.5
The Final Step.......................................................................................................................... 6.6
Appendix A: Job Aids
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page ii
5. COURSE OVERVIEW
About This Course
Being able to make decisions and solve problems effectively is a necessary
and vital part of the job for every emergency manager, planner, and
responder. This course is designed to improve your decision-making skills. It
addresses:
The decision-making process
Decision-making styles
Attributes of an effective decision maker
Ethical decision making and problem solving
FEMA’s Independent Study Program
FEMA’s Independent Study Program is one of the delivery channels that the
Emergency Management Institute (EMI) uses to provide training to the general
public and specific audiences. This course is part of the Federal Emergency
Management Agency’s (FEMA’s) Independent Study Program. In addition to
this course, the Independent Study Program includes courses in floodplain
management, radiological emergency management, the role of the emergency
manager, hazardous materials, disaster assistance, the role of the Emergency
Operations Center, and an orientation to community disaster exercises.
FEMA’s independent study courses are available at no charge and include a
final examination. You may apply individually or through group enrollment.
When enrolling for a course, you must include your name, mailing address,
social security number, and the title of the course in which you want to enroll.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1
6. COURSE OVERVIEW
FEMA’s Independent Study Program
FEMA Independent Study Program
Administrative Office
Emergency Management Institute
16825 South Seton Avenue
Emmitsburg, MD 21727
(301) 447-1200
Information about FEMA’s Independent Study Program also is available on the
Internet at:
http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS
Each request will be reviewed and directed to the appropriate course manager
or program office for assistance.
Final Examination
This course includes a written Final Examination, which you must complete
and return to FEMA’s Independent Study Office for scoring. To obtain credit
for taking this course, you must successfully complete (75 percent correct) this
examination regardless of whether you complete this course through self-
instruction or through group instruction.
You may take the Final Examination as many times as necessary.
Course Completion
The course completion deadline for all FEMA Independent Study courses is 1
year from the date of enrollment. The date of enrollment is the date that the
EMI Independent Study Office will use for completion of all required course
work, including the Final Examination. If you do not complete this course,
including the Final Examination, within that timeframe, your enrollment will be
terminated.
Decision Making and Problem Solving has no prerequisites.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2
7. COURSE OVERVIEW
How to Complete This Course
Work through this course at a pace that is comfortable for you. You should
resist the temptation to rush through the material, however. Take enough time
with each unit to ensure that you have mastered its content before proceeding
to the next.
Knowledge Checks
To help you know when to proceed, each unit is followed by a Knowledge
Check that addresses the material contained in the unit. The Knowledge
Check asks you to answer questions that apply to what you have learned in
the unit. The answers to the Knowledge Check follow each Knowledge Check.
When you finish each exercise, check your answers, and review the parts of
the text that you do not understand. Do not proceed to the next unit until you
are sure that you have mastered the current unit.
When you have completed all units, take the Final Examination online, or use
the answer sheet (if provided in your course packet). EMI will score your test
and notify you of the results.
Begin the Course
You may begin the course now.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 3
9. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Decision making and problem solving are critically important skill areas for
emergency managers, planners, first responders, voluntary agency
coordinators, and other professionals in emergency management.
As an emergency management professional, your ability to identify current and
potential problems and to make sound, timely decisions before and during an
emergency can literally affect the lives and well-being of the local citizenry.
Your decisions can impact the ability of response agencies to do their jobs and
can make the difference in how quickly the community is able to recover from
an event.
Decisions in Emergency Management
How often are your decision-making abilities tested when an emergency
threatens? Let’s begin with an example. Review the case study that is
provided on the next page.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.1
10. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Case Study
Case Study 1.1—Sebring County
Instructions: Read the following case study. As you read, try to identify what
decisions must be made by the emergency manager or other emergency
management officials. Jot down your ideas before continuing.
Background: Heavy rainstorms have hit, and counties across the entire State are faced with
flash flooding to varying degrees. The town of Westfield located in Sebring County, one of
the hardest hit counties in the Statesits high and well away from the river, so flooding is
usually not a concern. Last year, a new spillway was built to increase the capacity of the town
reservoir to about 44 million gallons. Two towns downstream, Ambry and Gilson, are less than
a 5-minute drive from Westfield. Each town has about 2400 residents, most of them along
U.S. Route 270.
Event chronology:
Late afternoon Rain begins, and weather forecasters predict it will be a strong, slow-moving
storm, which will produce heavy rain.
7:41 p.m. A flash flood watch is issued by the National Weather Service.
8:00 p.m. Heavy rains begin.
9:30 p.m. The county engineer stations an employee on the dam to watch for and
report any problems. The employee sees water pouring a good 2 feet over
the spillway. (It was later estimated that the reservoir was holding 65 million
gallons during and after the storm.)
11:00 p.m. Five inches of rain have fallen over the last 3 hours.
12:30 a.m. The employee sees a section of dirt break away.
1:00 a.m. When water recedes below the top of the dam, county employees discover
that water has eaten around the spillway and is gradually carving away the
side of the earthen dam. A first attempt at closing the hole with sandbags
fails when the force of the water carries the bags right through.
1:30 a.m. The Sebring County Emergency Program Manager is now meeting with the
mayor of Westfield, the county engineer, the public works director, the fire
chief, and the police chief to discuss the situation.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.2
11. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Decision Points
What decision points did you identify in the case study? If you noted that the
central problem is that if the dam breaks, the people in the downstream towns
will be flooded, you’re absolutely correct. Numerous decisions must be made
to address this problem. Some of the key decisions that must be made are
shown below, and you probably identified others as well.
Should residents in the two downstream towns be evacuated?
If the decision is to evacuate, when should the evacuation take place?
Who will notify the citizens of the evacuation, and how?
What additional resources will be necessary to accomplish the evacuation
and provide any shelter needed?
What is the most effective way to keep the dam from collapsing, and what
resources will be needed to accomplish that?
What’s At Stake?
The ability to make sound, timely decisions during an emergency event is
critical. Good problem solving and decision making can avert tragedy and help
the community recover from the event more quickly. Conversely, poor decision
makingor the absence of decisions potentially can result in injury or death
to victims or responders. (Clearly, in our case study, if the Emergency
Manager makes a poor decision—or simply doesn’t make any decision before
it’s too late—the consequences could be disastrous for the residents of Ambry
and Gilson.)
But the repercussions don’t stop there. Poor decisions in the early stages of
an event can make the responders’ job more difficult and more dangerous. In
addition, they can give rise to much more critical or complex decisions later
onto say nothing of the effect on community relations.
Good decision-making skills are one of your most critical assets as an
emergency management professional. This course will help you develop those
skills.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.3
12. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
About This Course
Decision Making and Problem Solving contains six units. Each unit is
described below.
Unit 1, Course Introduction, provides an overview of the course.
Unit 2, The Decision-Making Process, presents a five-step, problem-
solving model and opportunities to apply the model to case studies. The
unit also explores factors that affect decision making.
Unit 3, Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes, discusses the
impact of personality type and personal preferences on decision-making
style. During this unit, you will complete a personality type inventory and
consider what that information indicates about your approach to decision
making. This unit also explores what it takes to be an effective decision
maker and what you can do to capitalize on your strengths and minimize
your limitations.
Unit 4, Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving, focuses on
situations involving ethical decisions and discusses the components of
ethical decision making.
Unit 5, Decision Making in an Emergency, gives you an opportunity to
apply decision-making and problem-solving skills in a case study situation.
Unit 6, Course Summary, summarizes key concepts from the entire
course.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.4
13. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Activities and Exercises
This course will involve you actively as a learner by including activities and
exercises that highlight basic concepts. It will also provide you with guidance
on actions required in specific situations through the use of field-specific case
studies.
Job Aids
Throughout the course, you will find job aids designed to guide you through a
variety of decision-making tasks. They can be used during the course, and
you will find them useful later, after you have completed the course.
Knowledge Checks
At the end of most units you will find a knowledge self-check. You can use
these self-administered quizzes to verify that you have learned the content of
the unit before moving on.
Appendix
In addition to the six units, this course includes an appendix that contains
copies of all the job aids presented in the course.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.5
14. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Course Objectives
In Decision Making and Problem Solving, you will learn a decision-making
model that can be used to make decisions and solve problems in both
emergency and day-to-day situations. This self-paced course will provide you
with a foundation of knowledge that will enable you to:
Explain the need for decision-making and problem-solving skills in
emergency management.
Describe how decisions made before an emergency help the decision-
making process during an emergency.
Distinguish between a problem and its causes or symptoms.
Analyze your personal attributes and relate them to your decision-making
style.
Describe the personal attributes of an effective decision maker.
Explain how the ethics of a situation can affect decision making and
problem solving.
Apply a model for problem solving and decision making to emergency
management scenarios.
How Will You Benefit?
You will benefit in several ways by taking this course:
You will learn how to identify a problem—as distinguished from its causes
or symptoms. Failure to identify the problem properly is one of the main
reasons for poor decision making.
You will learn a model for problem solving—and learn how to apply the
model as a way of improving your decision making.
You will become more aware of your own personal attributes as a decision
maker and use that awareness as a starting point for improving your
decision-making ability.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.6
15. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
How To Complete This Course
This course is designed so that you can complete it on your own at your own
pace. Take a break after each unit, and give yourself time to think about the
material, particularly how it applies to your work as an emergency
management professional and the decision-making situations you have
encountered or anticipate encountering on the job.
Remember to complete the activities and case study exercises that are
presented during the course. These activities and exercises emphasize
different learning points, so be sure to complete all of them. Compare your
answers to the answers provided following each activity or exercise. If your
answers are correct, continue on with the material. If any of your answers are
wrong, go back and review the material before continuing.
Take the short “Knowledge Check” quizzes at the end of Units 2 through 5.
Check your answers using the answer key that follows each Knowledge
Check. If you missed any questions, go back and review the material again.
After you have completed all of the units, complete the Final Examination that
is available online through the Emergency Management Institute’s
Independent Study office, using the supplied answer sheet. To obtain credit
for taking this course, you must successfully complete this examination (75
percent correct). EMI will score your test and notify you of the results. You
may take the Final Examination as many times as necessary.
Sample Learning Schedule
Complete this course at your own pace. You should be able to finish the entire
courseincluding pretest, units, knowledge checks, and final examinationin
approximately 6 or 7 hours. The following learning schedule is only an
example, intended to show relative times devoted to each unit.
Unit Suggested Time
Unit 1: Course Introduction 1 hour
Unit 2: The Decision-Making Process 1 hour
Unit 3: Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes 1 hour 45 minutes
Unit 4: Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving 1 hour
Unit 5: Decision Making in an Emergency 1 hour
Unit 6: Course Summary 30 minutes
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.7
16. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Goal Setting
What do you hope to gain through completing Decision Making and Problem
Solving? Depending on your role in emergency management, your prior
experience in decision-making and problem solving situations, and your
current level of expertise in these areas, your goals may be slightly different
from those of another emergency management professional.
Clarifying your goals will help you gain the most from the time you spend
completing this course. Take a few minutes to complete the following activity.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.8
17. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Activity: Personal Learning Goals
Activity
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to develop personal goals for
this course.
Instructions: 1. Consider the following information:
The course objectives.
The potential benefits of completing this course.
Your own decision-making experience. Reflect on
emergencies in which you have participated, the
decisions that were made during those emergencies,
and the consequences of those decisions. What have
you learnedeither positive or negativefrom those
experiences?
2. Think about what you would like to accomplish through
this course. Then list three (or more) personal goals for
improving your decision-making and problem-solving
skills.
My Course Goals
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.9
18. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION
Summary and Transition
In this unit, you previewed the course and considered your own goals for
improving your decision-making and problem-solving skills. Unit 2 discusses
the decision-making process.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.10
20. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Introduction
Whether making ordinary day-to-day decisions or critical, time-sensitive
decisions in an emergency, using a standard problem-solving model will help
ensure that your decisions are rational and logical.
In this unit, you will learn a five-step, problem-solving model. After completing
this unit, you should be able to:
Describe how decisions made before an emergency affect decision making
and problem solving during an emergency.
Describe the steps in the problem-solving model.
Review a case study and distinguish the problem from its causes and
symptoms.
Problem Solving vs. Decision Making
To begin, let’s clarify what we mean by problem solving and decision making
and how they relate to one another.
Problem solving is a set of activities designed to analyze a situation
systematically and generate, implement, and evaluate solutions.
Decision making is a mechanism for making choices at each step of the
problem-solving process.
Decision making is part of problem solving, and decision making occurs at
every step of the problem-solving process.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.1
21. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Where Does the Process Begin?
Emergency decisions have their beginnings well before any emergency strikes.
Often the number, type, and magnitude of decisions and problems that must
be addressed during an emergency are a direct outgrowth of decisions that
were (or weren’t) made at the outset of the emergency, or even before the
emergency began.
The following case study illustrates how early decisions can affect later
decisions. Read the case study. Then, analyze the decision to determine how
the current decision can affect later decisions.
Case Study
Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation?
The town of Fort Rice, North Dakota is located on the western bank of the Missouri River. A
farming and ranching community, Fort Rice’s residents are known for their tenacity in fighting
the weather—and the river—to earn a living.
It has been raining for 12 hours, and the National Weather Service has forecast severe
flooding conditions through most of the upper Midwest. The Missouri River and the rivers and
streams that feed it are on the rise and are expected to continue to rise over the next several
days as the storm is held in place by a large high-pressure area that is currently stationary over
the Ohio Valley. Despite the fact that sandbagging crews have been supporting all local
levees, severe flooding is a near certainty.
The mayor and all emergency management professionals from Fort Rice have been keeping
abreast of the situation since before the rain began. They have been communicating with the
local Weather Forecast Office, as well as county and State emergency management
personnel. The question on the table at this point is not whether to issue an evacuation order
but whether to make the evacuation mandatory.
Historically, farmers and ranchers have been unwilling to evacuate, even when flooding is
severe. Most have grown up in the area and are aware of the damage that flooding can
cause, but they are also aware of their investment in their land and livestock and will fight to
save what they can.
After considerable discussion, the mayor, with the emergency management group’s
concurrence, makes the decision to activate the Emergency Alert System and issue the
evacuation order. But although they decide to word the message strongly, they do not make
the evacuation mandatory.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.2
22. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Answers
Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation? (Continued)
Answers to the Case Study
What is the potential impact of the decision not to make the evacuation mandatory?
The early decision to issue an evacuation order but to not make it mandatory can seriously
affect later decisions. Some of the ways in which later decisions can be affected are listed
below. You may have additional examples as well.
Farmers and ranchers who choose not to evacuate now may be in a position of needing to
evacuate later, when evacuation will be more dangerous or impossible. How will the
decision about how and when to effect an emergency rescue be made?
Emergency responders who may later be required to assist with emergency rescues will be
placed at risk. Who will make the decision to send responders into the fast-moving
waters? When will that decision be made?
Response resources deployed for emergency rescues may cause resource shortfalls
elsewhere. How does one weigh the overall benefit of deploying resources for emergency
rescues versus the cost of those resources not being available for other purposes (which
may also involve life-saving efforts)?
The overall cost for the response will increase if response resources must be deployed to
assist with emergency rescues. While cost will not be an issue where the potential loss of
life is involved, the decision not to require evacuation will affect later decisions about how
to cover the overall costs of the emergency.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.3
23. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The Starting Point
As an emergency management professional, you have at your disposal a
variety of resources designed to guide your decision making during
emergencies.
When a jurisdiction develops an Emergency Operations Plan (EOP), Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs), or other procedural documents, it provides the
foundation for decision making that will occur during emergencies.
Many decisions are made during the development of these documents, and
there are real advantages to having made those decisions during the planning
process rather than in the heat of an emergency.
Decisions made under non-emergency conditions can be made
deliberately, without the stress factors that accompany crisis decisions.
Absence of critical time factors permits the jurisdiction to use group
process, gather input from all of the involved parties, and achieve group
consensus.
The planning process allows enough time to consider all contingencies and
weigh alternative responses fully.
Planning in advance gives the jurisdiction time to obtain “buy-in” from the
many stakeholders, to train and exercise the plan, and to educate the
public about what to expect—and what to do—in an emergency.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.4
24. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The Starting Point (Continued)
Clearly, if your jurisdiction has an Emergency Operations Plan and procedures
in place, that is the place to start your decision-making process when an
emergency threatens or occurs. It will answer many questions, such as:
Who is responsible for what? Who makes decisions?
What organization should be used during response and recovery?
What triggers each kind of action?
How does communication take place?
Under what conditions is evacuation initiated?
What provisions are there for mass care?
As you implement the EOP, you can use the problem-solving model that is
included later in this unit at any stage of an emergency response to ensure
that you have the greatest possible control over the situation.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.5
25. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Recent Changes to Emergency Planning Requirements
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, illustrated the need for all levels
of government, the private sector, and nongovernmental agencies to prepare
for, protect against, respond to, and recover from a wide spectrum of events
that exceed the capabilities of any single entity. These events require a
unified and coordinated national approach to planning and to domestic incident
management. To address this need, the President signed a series of
Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs) that were intended to
develop a common approach to preparedness and response. Two HSPDs are
of particular importance in effective decision making for your jurisdiction:
HSPD-5, Management of Domestic Incidents, identifies steps for
improved coordination in response to incidents. It requires the Department
of Homeland Security (DHS) to coordinate with other Federal departments
and agencies and State, local, and Tribal governments to establish a
National Response Plan (NRP) and a National Incident Management
System (NIMS).
HSPD-8, National Preparedness, describes the way Federal departments
and agencies will prepare. It requires DHS to coordinate with other Federal
departments and agencies—and with State, local, and Tribal governments
to develop a National Preparedness Goal.
Together, NIMS, the NRP, and the National Preparedness Goal define what
needs to be done to prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from a
major event; how it needs to be done; and how well it needs to be done.
These efforts align Federal, State, local, and Tribal entities; the private sector;
and nongovernmental agencies to provide an effective and efficient national
structure for preparedness, incident management, and emergency response.
NIMS
NIMS provides a consistent framework for incident management at all
jurisdictional levels, regardless of the cause, size, or complexity of the incident.
Building on the Incident Command System (ICS), NIMS provides the nation’s
first responders and authorities with the same foundation for incident
management for terrorist attacks, natural disasters, and all other emergencies.
NIMS requires that ICS be institutionalized and used to manage all domestic
incidents.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.6
26. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
NIMS (Continued)
According to the NIMS Integration Center, “institutionalizing the use of ICS”
means that government officials, incident managers, and emergency response
organizations at all jurisdictional levels adopt the Incident Command System.
Actions to institutionalizing ICS takes place at two levels—policy and
organizational/operational.
At the policy level, institutionalizing ICS means government officials:
Adopt ICS through executive order, proclamation or legislation as the
jurisdiction’s official incident response system.
Direct that incident managers and response organizations in their
jurisdictions train, exercise, and use ICS in their response operations.
At the organizational/operational level, incident managers and emergency
response organizations should:
Integrate ICS into functional, system-wide emergency operations policies,
plans, and procedures.
Provide ICS training for responders, supervisors, and command-level
officers.
Conduct exercises for responders at all levels, including responders from
all disciplines and jurisdictions.
NIMS integrates existing best practices into a consistent, nationwide approach
to domestic incident management that is applicable at all jurisdictional levels
and across functional disciplines. Six major components make up the NIMS
system approach:
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.7
27. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
NIMS (Continued)
Command and Management: NIMS standard incident command
structures are based on three key organizational systems:
ICS: ICS defines the operating characteristics, interactive management
components, and structure of incident management and emergency
response organizations engaged throughout the life cycle of an
incident.
Multiagency Coordination Systems: Multiagency coordination systems
define the operating characteristics, interactive management
components, and organizational structure of supporting incident
management entities engaged at the Federal, State, local, Tribal, and
regional levels through mutual-aid agreements and other assistance
arrangements.
Public Information Systems : Public information systems refer to
processes, procedures, and systems for communicating timely and
accurate information to the public during crisis or emergency situations.
Preparedness: Effective incident management begins with a host of
preparedness activities conducted on a “steady-state” basis, well in
advance of any potential incident. Preparedness involves an integrated
combination of planning, training, exercises, personnel qualification and
certification standards, equipment acquisition and certification standards,
and publication management processes and activities.
Resource Management: NIMS defines standardized mechanisms and
establishes requirements for processes to describe, inventory, mobilize,
dispatch, track, and recover resources over the life cycle of an incident.
Communications and Information Management: NIMS identifies the
requirements for a standardized framework for communications,
information management (collection, analysis, and dissemination), and
information sharing at all levels of incident management.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.8
28. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
NIMS (Continued)
Supporting Technologies: Technology and technological systems
provide supporting capabilities essential to implementing and refining
NIMS. These include voice and data communications systems, information
management systems (e.g., recordkeeping and resource tracking), and
data display systems. Also included are specialized technologies that
facilitate ongoing operations and incident management activities in
situations that call for unique technology-based capabilities.
Ongoing Management and Maintenance: This component establishes
an activity to provide strategic direction for and oversight of NIMS,
supporting both routine review and the continuous refinement of the
system and its components over the long term.
Additional information about NIMS can be found online at
www.fema.gov/NIMS.
The NRP
The NRP is an all-discipline, all-hazard plan for the management of domestic
incidents. The NRP provides the structure and mechanisms to coordinate and
integrate incident management activities and emergency support functions
across Federal, State, local, and Tribal government entities; the private sector;
and nongovernmental organizations.
The NRP:
Builds on what works from previous plans and incident responses.
The NRP represents a true “national” framework in terms of both product
and process. The NRP development process included extensive vetting
and coordination with Federal, State, local, and Tribal agencies;
nongovernmental organizations; private-sector entities; and the first-
responder and emergency management communities across the country.
The NRP incorporates best practices from a wide variety of incident
management disciplines, including fire, rescue, emergency management,
law enforcement, public works, and emergency medical services. The
collective input received from public- and private-sector partners has been,
and will continue to be, absolutely critical to implementing and refining the
core concepts included in the plan.
Forges new approaches and mechanisms to address today’s threats.
The NRP is not just a compilation of elements. The whole is vastly more
than the sum of its parts.
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29. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The NRP (Continued)
Addresses the complete spectrum of incident management activities.
The NRP is unique and far reaching. For the first time, the NRP eliminates
critical seams and ties together a complete spectrum of incident
management activities, including the prevention of, preparedness for,
response to, and recovery from terrorist incidents, major natural disasters,
and other major emergencies.
Uses NIMS to establish a framework for coordination among Federal,
State, local, and Tribal governments; nongovernmental organizations;
and the private sector. The NRP is built on NIMS, which provides a
consistent doctrinal framework for incident management at all jurisdictional
levels, regardless of incident cause, size, or complexity.
The NRP incorporates relevant portions of and supersedes the following plans:
The Federal Response Plan (FRP).
The U.S. Government Interagency Domestic Terrorism Concept of
Operations Plan (CONPLAN). The Terrorism Incident Law Enforcement
and Investigation Annex of the NRP revises and replaces the CONPLAN.
The annex describes the coordination of law enforcement and investigation
efforts during terrorist attacks.
The Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (FRERP). The
Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex of the NRP revises and replaces the
FRERP. The annex provides guidelines for radiological incidents that are
considered Incidents of National Significance and for those that fall below
the threshold of an Incident of National Significance.
Initial National Response Plan (INRP).
These plans are linked to the NRP in the context of Incidents of National
Significance but remain as stand-alone documents in that they also provide
detailed protocols for responding to routine incidents that normally are
managed by Federal agencies without the need for DHS coordination. The
NRP also incorporates other existing Federal emergency response and
incident management plans (with appropriate modifications and revisions) as
integrated components, operational supplements, or supporting tactical plans.
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30. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
The NRP (Continued)
The NRP, as a core operational plan for national incident management, also
establishes national-level coordinating structures, processes, and protocols
that will be incorporated into certain existing Federal interagency incident- or
hazard-specific plans (for example, the National Oil and Hazardous
Substances Pollution Contingency Plan) designed to implement the specific
statutory authorities and responsibilities of various departments and agencies
in specific contingency scenarios.
The main benefit of the NRP is that it fully integrates emergency response and
law enforcement elements into a single national strategy.
The full text of the NRP can be downloaded at
www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interweb/assetlibrary/NRP_FullText.pdf.
What These Changes Mean to You
Depending on your jurisdiction, the changes to the emergency planning
requirements may mean little—or a lot. Minimally, the changes mean that your
jurisdiction must:
Use ICS to manage all incidents, including recurring and/or planned special
events.
Integrate all response agencies and entities into a single, seamless
system, from the Incident Command Post, through Department Emergency
Operations Centers (DEOCs) and local Emergency Operations Centers
(EOCs), through the State EOC to the regional- and national-level entities.
Develop and implement a public information system.
Identify and type all resources according to established standards.
Ensure that all personnel are trained properly for the job(s) they perform.
Ensure communications interoperability and redundancy.
Problems may still arise, and decisions will need to be made as an emergency
unfolds, but following the guidance provided by your EOP and these new
requirements will lead to a smoother and more predictable response effort.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.11
31. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Problem-Solving Model
There are many different decision-making/problem-solving models that you
can use. The five-step model shown below has proven effective in emergency
situations. When using this model, each step may be completed quickly, but
every step must be considered. It is not necessary to document each step, but
it is important to think through every step.
Step 1: Identify
the problem
Step 5: Evaluate Step 2: Explore
the solution
situation alternatives
Step 4: Implement Step 3: Select
the solution an alternative
In the remainder of this unit, we will take a closer look at each of the five steps
and how you can apply them to emergencies.
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32. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Step 1. Identify the Problem
Problem identification is undoubtedly the most importantand the most
difficultstep in the process. All subsequent steps will be based on how you
define and assess the problem at hand.
What Is a “Problem”?
A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization that will
exist in the future, and that is considered undesirable by members of the
Definition
organization.
Problem or Solution?
In carrying out Step 1, you must distinguish between a problem and its
solution. The most common error in problem solving is defining problems in
terms of their solutions. Sometimes people think that they are articulating
problems when actually they are stating a potential solution.
Here’s an example: Someone might say, “The problem is that we don’t have
an EOC.” The problem, however, is not that there is no EOC.
The problem is really that the emergency management community cannot
coordinate communications adequately during the response phase.
Establishing an EOC is a solution.
Delineating the Problem Parameters
Identifying the problem also involves analyzing the situation to determine the
extent of the problem. Problem parameters include:
What is happening (and is not happening).
Who is involved.
What the stakes are.
On the next page is a Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing
Problems. The checklist presents a set of questions that can help you define a
problem accurately. (This job aid is also provided in the Appendix for easy
reference at a later time.)
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33. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Step 1 Job Aid: Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems
Question Yes No
1. Is this a new problem?
2. Is the problem clearly and precisely stated?
3. What assumptions am I making about the problem? Are they
true?
4. What would happen if nothing were done about this problem?
5. Can the problem be restated in other terms? If yes, how?
6. What data are known that bear on the problem?
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34. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Step 1 Job Aid: Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems
(Continued)
Question Yes No
7. Is the information accurate?
8. Are there any precedents or rules about other procedures
that apply to the problem? If so, what precedents or rules
apply?
9. What additional facts are needed to analyze the problem?
(List)
10. Is it possible to interpret the facts differently? How would that
affect the problem’s solution?
11. Do I have to make this decision, or does someone else? If
this decision is someone else’s to make, whose is it?
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35. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Step 2. Explore Alternatives
The second step in the decision-making process is to explore alternative
solutions to the problem identified in Step 1. This step really consists of two
parts:
Generating alternatives
Evaluating alternatives
The case study presented below provides an opportunity to examine a
problem and generate alternative solutions. Read the case study, then identify
the problem and generate as many alternative solutions as you can.
Case Study
Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options?
Auburn, Maine is a city of 24,000 located on the Androscoggin River, 50 miles north of
Portland. Like much of southern Maine, Auburn has a growing population of retirees and
elderly persons, many of whom reside in assisted-living communities.
It is early December, and much of southwestern Maine has been under the influence of a low-
pressure system. Unlike most nor’easters that occur regularly this time of year, however, this
system features warm air aloft with below-freezing surface temperatures. Thus, the rain that is
falling is freezing on roads, trees, and electric lines. Electricity has been interrupted to a large
portion of the city as wires collapse under the increasing weight of the accumulating ice.
At 11:00 p.m., the local emergency manager receives a call forwarded from emergency
dispatch stating that the Owl’s Nest nursing home’s generator has failed. Owl’s Nest is a
nursing home, assisted-living community of approximately 250 residents. Of those,
approximately 80 have been affected by the generator failure. These patients are in the
nursing home portion of the facility, and many are chronically ill and very susceptible to the
effects of the cold and dampness. For now, the Owl’s Nest administrator has gathered the
affected residents in the recreation room and is using blankets to keep them warm. This is not
a good long-term option, however, because the temperature is expected to drop into the teens
by morning.
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36. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Answers
Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options? (Continued)
Answers to the Case Study
What is the problem in this case study?
If you determined that the problem in this case study centers around how to keep the nursing
home residents warm, your answer is correct. (Note: If your problem statement centers on
either the weather or the failed generator, please review the problem identification section of
this unit again. Both the weather and the failed generator are causes of the current problem.)
What alternatives are available?
Some of the options that you may have developed for this case study could be:
Evacuate the affected residents to another portion of the facility or to a shelter.
Bring in more blankets, hot drinks, etc., to keep the residents warm.
Bring in a portable generator and commercial space heaters.
You may have developed other alternatives as well. Remember, at this point in the problem-
solving process, you should be generating alternatives only, not evaluating the feasibility of the
alternatives.
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37. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
Step 2. Explore Alternatives (Continued)
Techniques for Generating Alternatives
So, what process did you use to generate the alternatives for the case study?
There are three ways to generate alternatives.
Brainstorming can be done individually or in a group. Brainstorming
requires an environment in which the participants (individuals or group
members) are free to “think out loud.” Participants blurt out as many ideas
as possible within a specified time period. No evaluation of ideas is
permitted so as to encourage the free flow of creative ideas. These ideas
are recorded. When the specified time period ends, then evaluation of the
ideas begins.
Surveys economically tap the ideas of a large group of respondents.
Surveys present respondents with the problem and a series of alternative
solutions.
Discussion groups should consist of those who are directly involved in
decision making. In generating alternatives, the group members should:
Be comprehensive.
Avoid initial judgments (as in brainstorming).
Focus on the problem, not on the personalities of the people involved in
the decision-making process. (But be sensitive to the impact of
personalities on the process.)
Criteria for Evaluating Alternatives
After you have generated alternative solutions, you must have some means of
evaluating them. Step 2 Job Aid lists criteria by which you can evaluate
alternatives.
Another part of evaluation is identifying contingencies—what could go wrong.
Think in terms of Murphy’s Law (“If anything can go wrong, it will.”) and identify
what could get in the way of solving the problem you are facing.
Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.18