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Decision Making and
Problem Solving
Independent Study

November 2005

       FEMA
TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                                                                                                       Page

Course Overview........................................................................................................................ 1

Unit 1: Course Introduction
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1.1
Decisions in Emergency Management.....................................................................................1.1
Case Study 1.1—Sebring County............................................................................................1.2
Decision Points......................................................................................................................... 1.3
What’s at Stake?...................................................................................................................... 1.3
About This Course....................................................................................................................1.4
Activities and Exercises............................................................................................................1.5
Job Aids.................................................................................................................................... 1.5
Knowledge Checks................................................................................................................... 1.5
Appendix.................................................................................................................................. 1.5
Course Objectives.................................................................................................................... 1.6
How Will You Benefit?..............................................................................................................1.6
How to Complete This Course..................................................................................................1.7
Sample Learning Schedule......................................................................................................1.8
Goal Setting.............................................................................................................................. 1.9
Activity: Personal Learning Goals..........................................................................................1.10
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 1.11

Unit 2: The Decision-Making Process
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 2.1
Problem Solving vs. Decision Making.......................................................................................2.1
Where Does the Process Begin?.............................................................................................2.2
Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation?...........................................................2.2
The Starting Point..................................................................................................................... 2.4
Recent Changes to Emergency Planning Requirements.........................................................2.6
Problem-Solving Model.......................................................................................................... 2.12
Step 1: Identify the Problem..................................................................................................2.13
Step 2: Explore Alternatives..................................................................................................2.16
Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options?............................................................................2.16
Step 3: Select an Alternative.................................................................................................2.20
Step 4: Implement the Solution.............................................................................................2.22
Activity: Implementing the Solution........................................................................................2.23
Step 5: Evaluate the Situation...............................................................................................2.27
Activity: Evaluating Your Solution..........................................................................................2.29
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 2.31
For More Information.............................................................................................................. 2.31
Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 2.32




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                                                                   Page i
COURSE OVERVIEW

                                                                                                                                      Page

Unit 3: Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 3.1
What Is Psychological Type?...................................................................................................3.1
What Are Preferences?............................................................................................................3.2
Using Type Inventories to Determine Preferences...................................................................3.2
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ®............................................................................................3.3
Preferences and Decision Making............................................................................................3.4
Activity: Where Should You Flex?...........................................................................................3.5
Who Decides?.......................................................................................................................... 3.8
Successful Group Decision Making........................................................................................3.10
Activity: Individual or Group Decision?..................................................................................3.13
What Is an Effective Decision Maker?....................................................................................3.17
Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker...............................................................................3.17
Activity: Identifying Your Strengths and Limitations...............................................................3.19
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 3.20
For More Information.............................................................................................................. 3.20
Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 3.21

Unit 4: Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 4.1
What Is Ethics?........................................................................................................................ 4.1
Ethical Issues and Emergencies..............................................................................................4.2
Activity: Ethical Issues and Emergencies................................................................................4.3
Components of Ethical Decision Making..................................................................................4.6
Applying the Problem-Solving Model to Ethical Issues.............................................................4.7
Activity: Applying the Problem-Solving Model to Ethical Issues..............................................4.8
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 4.11
For More Information.............................................................................................................. 4.11
Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 4.12

Unit 5: Decision Making in an Emergency
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 5.1
Decision Making and Stress.....................................................................................................5.1
Case Study: Hurricane Hortence.............................................................................................5.3
Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 5.10

Unit 6: Course Summary
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 6.1
The Decision-Making Process..................................................................................................6.1
The Problem-Solving Model.....................................................................................................6.2
Decision-Making Styles............................................................................................................6.3
Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker.................................................................................6.4
Ethical Decision Making............................................................................................................ 6.5
The Final Step.......................................................................................................................... 6.6

Appendix A: Job Aids




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                                                                  Page ii
Course Overview
COURSE OVERVIEW


              About This Course

              Being able to make decisions and solve problems effectively is a necessary
              and vital part of the job for every emergency manager, planner, and
              responder. This course is designed to improve your decision-making skills. It
              addresses:

                 The decision-making process

                 Decision-making styles

                 Attributes of an effective decision maker

                 Ethical decision making and problem solving

              FEMA’s Independent Study Program

              FEMA’s Independent Study Program is one of the delivery channels that the
              Emergency Management Institute (EMI) uses to provide training to the general
              public and specific audiences. This course is part of the Federal Emergency
              Management Agency’s (FEMA’s) Independent Study Program. In addition to
              this course, the Independent Study Program includes courses in floodplain
              management, radiological emergency management, the role of the emergency
              manager, hazardous materials, disaster assistance, the role of the Emergency
              Operations Center, and an orientation to community disaster exercises.

              FEMA’s independent study courses are available at no charge and include a
              final examination. You may apply individually or through group enrollment.
              When enrolling for a course, you must include your name, mailing address,
              social security number, and the title of the course in which you want to enroll.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                      Page 1
COURSE OVERVIEW


              FEMA’s Independent Study Program

              FEMA Independent Study Program
              Administrative Office
              Emergency Management Institute
              16825 South Seton Avenue
              Emmitsburg, MD 21727
              (301) 447-1200

              Information about FEMA’s Independent Study Program also is available on the
              Internet at:

              http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS

              Each request will be reviewed and directed to the appropriate course manager
              or program office for assistance.

              Final Examination

              This course includes a written Final Examination, which you must complete
              and return to FEMA’s Independent Study Office for scoring. To obtain credit
              for taking this course, you must successfully complete (75 percent correct) this
              examination regardless of whether you complete this course through self-
              instruction or through group instruction.

              You may take the Final Examination as many times as necessary.

              Course Completion

              The course completion deadline for all FEMA Independent Study courses is 1
              year from the date of enrollment. The date of enrollment is the date that the
              EMI Independent Study Office will use for completion of all required course
              work, including the Final Examination. If you do not complete this course,
              including the Final Examination, within that timeframe, your enrollment will be
              terminated.

              Decision Making and Problem Solving has no prerequisites.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                     Page 2
COURSE OVERVIEW


              How to Complete This Course

              Work through this course at a pace that is comfortable for you. You should
              resist the temptation to rush through the material, however. Take enough time
              with each unit to ensure that you have mastered its content before proceeding
              to the next.

              Knowledge Checks

              To help you know when to proceed, each unit is followed by a Knowledge
              Check that addresses the material contained in the unit. The Knowledge
              Check asks you to answer questions that apply to what you have learned in
              the unit. The answers to the Knowledge Check follow each Knowledge Check.

              When you finish each exercise, check your answers, and review the parts of
              the text that you do not understand. Do not proceed to the next unit until you
              are sure that you have mastered the current unit.

              When you have completed all units, take the Final Examination online, or use
              the answer sheet (if provided in your course packet). EMI will score your test
              and notify you of the results.

              Begin the Course

              You may begin the course now.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 3
Unit 1: Course Introduction
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Introduction

              Decision making and problem solving are critically important skill areas for
              emergency managers, planners, first responders, voluntary agency
              coordinators, and other professionals in emergency management.

              As an emergency management professional, your ability to identify current and
              potential problems and to make sound, timely decisions before and during an
              emergency can literally affect the lives and well-being of the local citizenry.
              Your decisions can impact the ability of response agencies to do their jobs and
              can make the difference in how quickly the community is able to recover from
              an event.

              Decisions in Emergency Management

              How often are your decision-making abilities tested when an emergency
              threatens? Let’s begin with an example. Review the case study that is
              provided on the next page.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 1.1
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


   Case Study
                 Case Study 1.1—Sebring County

                 Instructions: Read the following case study. As you read, try to identify what
                 decisions must be made by the emergency manager or other emergency
                 management officials. Jot down your ideas before continuing.


Background: Heavy rainstorms have hit, and counties across the entire State are faced with
flash flooding to varying degrees. The town of Westfield located in Sebring County, one of
the hardest hit counties in the Statesits high and well away from the river, so flooding is
usually not a concern. Last year, a new spillway was built to increase the capacity of the town
reservoir to about 44 million gallons. Two towns downstream, Ambry and Gilson, are less than
a 5-minute drive from Westfield. Each town has about 2400 residents, most of them along
U.S. Route 270.

Event chronology:

Late afternoon    Rain begins, and weather forecasters predict it will be a strong, slow-moving
                  storm, which will produce heavy rain.

7:41 p.m.         A flash flood watch is issued by the National Weather Service.

8:00 p.m.         Heavy rains begin.

9:30 p.m.         The county engineer stations an employee on the dam to watch for and
                  report any problems. The employee sees water pouring a good 2 feet over
                  the spillway. (It was later estimated that the reservoir was holding 65 million
                  gallons during and after the storm.)

11:00 p.m.        Five inches of rain have fallen over the last 3 hours.

12:30 a.m.        The employee sees a section of dirt break away.

1:00 a.m.         When water recedes below the top of the dam, county employees discover
                  that water has eaten around the spillway and is gradually carving away the
                  side of the earthen dam. A first attempt at closing the hole with sandbags
                  fails when the force of the water carries the bags right through.

1:30 a.m.         The Sebring County Emergency Program Manager is now meeting with the
                  mayor of Westfield, the county engineer, the public works director, the fire
                  chief, and the police chief to discuss the situation.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                       Page 1.2
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Decision Points

              What decision points did you identify in the case study? If you noted that the
              central problem is that if the dam breaks, the people in the downstream towns
              will be flooded, you’re absolutely correct. Numerous decisions must be made
              to address this problem. Some of the key decisions that must be made are
              shown below, and you probably identified others as well.

                 Should residents in the two downstream towns be evacuated?

                 If the decision is to evacuate, when should the evacuation take place?

                 Who will notify the citizens of the evacuation, and how?

                 What additional resources will be necessary to accomplish the evacuation
                  and provide any shelter needed?

                 What is the most effective way to keep the dam from collapsing, and what
                  resources will be needed to accomplish that?

              What’s At Stake?

              The ability to make sound, timely decisions during an emergency event is
              critical. Good problem solving and decision making can avert tragedy and help
              the community recover from the event more quickly. Conversely, poor decision
              makingor the absence of decisions potentially can result in injury or death
              to victims or responders. (Clearly, in our case study, if the Emergency
              Manager makes a poor decision—or simply doesn’t make any decision before
              it’s too late—the consequences could be disastrous for the residents of Ambry
              and Gilson.)

              But the repercussions don’t stop there. Poor decisions in the early stages of
              an event can make the responders’ job more difficult and more dangerous. In
              addition, they can give rise to much more critical or complex decisions later
              onto say nothing of the effect on community relations.

              Good decision-making skills are one of your most critical assets as an
              emergency management professional. This course will help you develop those
              skills.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                  Page 1.3
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              About This Course

              Decision Making and Problem Solving contains six units. Each unit is
              described below.

                 Unit 1, Course Introduction, provides an overview of the course.

                 Unit 2, The Decision-Making Process, presents a five-step, problem-
                  solving model and opportunities to apply the model to case studies. The
                  unit also explores factors that affect decision making.

                 Unit 3, Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes, discusses the
                  impact of personality type and personal preferences on decision-making
                  style. During this unit, you will complete a personality type inventory and
                  consider what that information indicates about your approach to decision
                  making. This unit also explores what it takes to be an effective decision
                  maker and what you can do to capitalize on your strengths and minimize
                  your limitations.

                 Unit 4, Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving, focuses on
                  situations involving ethical decisions and discusses the components of
                  ethical decision making.

                 Unit 5, Decision Making in an Emergency, gives you an opportunity to
                  apply decision-making and problem-solving skills in a case study situation.

                 Unit 6, Course Summary, summarizes key concepts from the entire
                  course.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                   Page 1.4
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Activities and Exercises

              This course will involve you actively as a learner by including activities and
              exercises that highlight basic concepts. It will also provide you with guidance
              on actions required in specific situations through the use of field-specific case
              studies.

              Job Aids

              Throughout the course, you will find job aids designed to guide you through a
              variety of decision-making tasks. They can be used during the course, and
              you will find them useful later, after you have completed the course.

              Knowledge Checks

              At the end of most units you will find a knowledge self-check. You can use
              these self-administered quizzes to verify that you have learned the content of
              the unit before moving on.

              Appendix

              In addition to the six units, this course includes an appendix that contains
              copies of all the job aids presented in the course.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                     Page 1.5
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Course Objectives

              In Decision Making and Problem Solving, you will learn a decision-making
              model that can be used to make decisions and solve problems in both
              emergency and day-to-day situations. This self-paced course will provide you
              with a foundation of knowledge that will enable you to:

                 Explain the need for decision-making and problem-solving skills in
                  emergency management.

                 Describe how decisions made before an emergency help the decision-
                  making process during an emergency.

                 Distinguish between a problem and its causes or symptoms.

                 Analyze your personal attributes and relate them to your decision-making
                  style.

                 Describe the personal attributes of an effective decision maker.

                 Explain how the ethics of a situation can affect decision making and
                  problem solving.

                 Apply a model for problem solving and decision making to emergency
                  management scenarios.

              How Will You Benefit?

              You will benefit in several ways by taking this course:

                 You will learn how to identify a problem—as distinguished from its causes
                  or symptoms. Failure to identify the problem properly is one of the main
                  reasons for poor decision making.

                 You will learn a model for problem solving—and learn how to apply the
                  model as a way of improving your decision making.

                 You will become more aware of your own personal attributes as a decision
                  maker and use that awareness as a starting point for improving your
                  decision-making ability.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 1.6
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              How To Complete This Course

              This course is designed so that you can complete it on your own at your own
              pace. Take a break after each unit, and give yourself time to think about the
              material, particularly how it applies to your work as an emergency
              management professional and the decision-making situations you have
              encountered or anticipate encountering on the job.

              Remember to complete the activities and case study exercises that are
              presented during the course. These activities and exercises emphasize
              different learning points, so be sure to complete all of them. Compare your
              answers to the answers provided following each activity or exercise. If your
              answers are correct, continue on with the material. If any of your answers are
              wrong, go back and review the material before continuing.

              Take the short “Knowledge Check” quizzes at the end of Units 2 through 5.
              Check your answers using the answer key that follows each Knowledge
              Check. If you missed any questions, go back and review the material again.

              After you have completed all of the units, complete the Final Examination that
              is available online through the Emergency Management Institute’s
              Independent Study office, using the supplied answer sheet. To obtain credit
              for taking this course, you must successfully complete this examination (75
              percent correct). EMI will score your test and notify you of the results. You
              may take the Final Examination as many times as necessary.

              Sample Learning Schedule

              Complete this course at your own pace. You should be able to finish the entire
              courseincluding pretest, units, knowledge checks, and final examinationin
              approximately 6 or 7 hours. The following learning schedule is only an
              example, intended to show relative times devoted to each unit.

              Unit                                                          Suggested Time

              Unit 1:   Course Introduction                                            1 hour
              Unit 2:   The Decision-Making Process                                    1 hour
              Unit 3:   Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes   1 hour 45 minutes
              Unit 4:   Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving                    1 hour
              Unit 5:   Decision Making in an Emergency                                1 hour
              Unit 6:   Course Summary                                             30 minutes




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                  Page 1.7
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Goal Setting

              What do you hope to gain through completing Decision Making and Problem
              Solving? Depending on your role in emergency management, your prior
              experience in decision-making and problem solving situations, and your
              current level of expertise in these areas, your goals may be slightly different
              from those of another emergency management professional.

              Clarifying your goals will help you gain the most from the time you spend
              completing this course. Take a few minutes to complete the following activity.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 1.8
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Activity: Personal Learning Goals
  Activity




              Purpose:         The purpose of this activity is to develop personal goals for
                               this course.

              Instructions:    1. Consider the following information:

                                     The course objectives.
                                     The potential benefits of completing this course.
                                     Your own decision-making experience. Reflect on
                                      emergencies in which you have participated, the
                                      decisions that were made during those emergencies,
                                      and the consequences of those decisions. What have
                                      you learnedeither positive or negativefrom those
                                      experiences?

                               2. Think about what you would like to accomplish through
                                  this course. Then list three (or more) personal goals for
                                  improving your decision-making and problem-solving
                                  skills.


                                            My Course Goals


               1.   ______________________________________________________


               2.   ______________________________________________________


               3.   ______________________________________________________




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                  Page 1.9
UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION


              Summary and Transition

              In this unit, you previewed the course and considered your own goals for
              improving your decision-making and problem-solving skills. Unit 2 discusses
              the decision-making process.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                               Page 1.10
Unit 2: The Decision-Making
                    Process
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


              Introduction

              Whether making ordinary day-to-day decisions or critical, time-sensitive
              decisions in an emergency, using a standard problem-solving model will help
              ensure that your decisions are rational and logical.

              In this unit, you will learn a five-step, problem-solving model. After completing
              this unit, you should be able to:

                 Describe how decisions made before an emergency affect decision making
                  and problem solving during an emergency.

                 Describe the steps in the problem-solving model.

                 Review a case study and distinguish the problem from its causes and
                  symptoms.

              Problem Solving vs. Decision Making

              To begin, let’s clarify what we mean by problem solving and decision making
              and how they relate to one another.

                 Problem solving is a set of activities designed to analyze a situation
                  systematically and generate, implement, and evaluate solutions.

                 Decision making is a mechanism for making choices at each step of the
                  problem-solving process.

              Decision making is part of problem solving, and decision making occurs at
              every step of the problem-solving process.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                     Page 2.1
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


                Where Does the Process Begin?

                Emergency decisions have their beginnings well before any emergency strikes.
                Often the number, type, and magnitude of decisions and problems that must
                be addressed during an emergency are a direct outgrowth of decisions that
                were (or weren’t) made at the outset of the emergency, or even before the
                emergency began.

                The following case study illustrates how early decisions can affect later
                decisions. Read the case study. Then, analyze the decision to determine how
                the current decision can affect later decisions.

   Case Study
                Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation?


The town of Fort Rice, North Dakota is located on the western bank of the Missouri River. A
farming and ranching community, Fort Rice’s residents are known for their tenacity in fighting
the weather—and the river—to earn a living.

It has been raining for 12 hours, and the National Weather Service has forecast severe
flooding conditions through most of the upper Midwest. The Missouri River and the rivers and
streams that feed it are on the rise and are expected to continue to rise over the next several
days as the storm is held in place by a large high-pressure area that is currently stationary over
the Ohio Valley. Despite the fact that sandbagging crews have been supporting all local
levees, severe flooding is a near certainty.

The mayor and all emergency management professionals from Fort Rice have been keeping
abreast of the situation since before the rain began. They have been communicating with the
local Weather Forecast Office, as well as county and State emergency management
personnel. The question on the table at this point is not whether to issue an evacuation order
but whether to make the evacuation mandatory.

Historically, farmers and ranchers have been unwilling to evacuate, even when flooding is
severe. Most have grown up in the area and are aware of the damage that flooding can
cause, but they are also aware of their investment in their land and livestock and will fight to
save what they can.

After considerable discussion, the mayor, with the emergency management group’s
concurrence, makes the decision to activate the Emergency Alert System and issue the
evacuation order. But although they decide to word the message strongly, they do not make
the evacuation mandatory.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                       Page 2.2
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


    Answers
                Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation? (Continued)


                                  Answers to the Case Study

What is the potential impact of the decision not to make the evacuation mandatory?

The early decision to issue an evacuation order but to not make it mandatory can seriously
affect later decisions. Some of the ways in which later decisions can be affected are listed
below. You may have additional examples as well.

   Farmers and ranchers who choose not to evacuate now may be in a position of needing to
    evacuate later, when evacuation will be more dangerous or impossible. How will the
    decision about how and when to effect an emergency rescue be made?
   Emergency responders who may later be required to assist with emergency rescues will be
    placed at risk. Who will make the decision to send responders into the fast-moving
    waters? When will that decision be made?
   Response resources deployed for emergency rescues may cause resource shortfalls
    elsewhere. How does one weigh the overall benefit of deploying resources for emergency
    rescues versus the cost of those resources not being available for other purposes (which
    may also involve life-saving efforts)?
   The overall cost for the response will increase if response resources must be deployed to
    assist with emergency rescues. While cost will not be an issue where the potential loss of
    life is involved, the decision not to require evacuation will affect later decisions about how
    to cover the overall costs of the emergency.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                       Page 2.3
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


              The Starting Point

              As an emergency management professional, you have at your disposal a
              variety of resources designed to guide your decision making during
              emergencies.

              When a jurisdiction develops an Emergency Operations Plan (EOP), Standard
              Operating Procedures (SOPs), or other procedural documents, it provides the
              foundation for decision making that will occur during emergencies.

              Many decisions are made during the development of these documents, and
              there are real advantages to having made those decisions during the planning
              process rather than in the heat of an emergency.

                 Decisions made under non-emergency conditions can be made
                  deliberately, without the stress factors that accompany crisis decisions.

                 Absence of critical time factors permits the jurisdiction to use group
                  process, gather input from all of the involved parties, and achieve group
                  consensus.

                 The planning process allows enough time to consider all contingencies and
                  weigh alternative responses fully.

                 Planning in advance gives the jurisdiction time to obtain “buy-in” from the
                  many stakeholders, to train and exercise the plan, and to educate the
                  public about what to expect—and what to do—in an emergency.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 2.4
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


              The Starting Point (Continued)

              Clearly, if your jurisdiction has an Emergency Operations Plan and procedures
              in place, that is the place to start your decision-making process when an
              emergency threatens or occurs. It will answer many questions, such as:

                 Who is responsible for what? Who makes decisions?

                 What organization should be used during response and recovery?

                 What triggers each kind of action?

                 How does communication take place?

                 Under what conditions is evacuation initiated?

                 What provisions are there for mass care?

              As you implement the EOP, you can use the problem-solving model that is
              included later in this unit at any stage of an emergency response to ensure
              that you have the greatest possible control over the situation.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                  Page 2.5
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


              Recent Changes to Emergency Planning Requirements

              The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, illustrated the need for all levels
              of government, the private sector, and nongovernmental agencies to prepare
              for, protect against, respond to, and recover from a wide spectrum of events
              that exceed the capabilities of any single entity. These events require a
              unified and coordinated national approach to planning and to domestic incident
              management. To address this need, the President signed a series of
              Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs) that were intended to
              develop a common approach to preparedness and response. Two HSPDs are
              of particular importance in effective decision making for your jurisdiction:

                 HSPD-5, Management of Domestic Incidents, identifies steps for
                  improved coordination in response to incidents. It requires the Department
                  of Homeland Security (DHS) to coordinate with other Federal departments
                  and agencies and State, local, and Tribal governments to establish a
                  National Response Plan (NRP) and a National Incident Management
                  System (NIMS).

                 HSPD-8, National Preparedness, describes the way Federal departments
                  and agencies will prepare. It requires DHS to coordinate with other Federal
                  departments and agencies—and with State, local, and Tribal governments
                  to develop a National Preparedness Goal.

              Together, NIMS, the NRP, and the National Preparedness Goal define what
              needs to be done to prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from a
              major event; how it needs to be done; and how well it needs to be done.
              These efforts align Federal, State, local, and Tribal entities; the private sector;
              and nongovernmental agencies to provide an effective and efficient national
              structure for preparedness, incident management, and emergency response.

              NIMS

              NIMS provides a consistent framework for incident management at all
              jurisdictional levels, regardless of the cause, size, or complexity of the incident.
              Building on the Incident Command System (ICS), NIMS provides the nation’s
              first responders and authorities with the same foundation for incident
              management for terrorist attacks, natural disasters, and all other emergencies.
              NIMS requires that ICS be institutionalized and used to manage all domestic
              incidents.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                      Page 2.6
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

              NIMS (Continued)

              According to the NIMS Integration Center, “institutionalizing the use of ICS”
              means that government officials, incident managers, and emergency response
              organizations at all jurisdictional levels adopt the Incident Command System.
              Actions to institutionalizing ICS takes place at two levels—policy and
              organizational/operational.

              At the policy level, institutionalizing ICS means government officials:

                 Adopt ICS through executive order, proclamation or legislation as the
                  jurisdiction’s official incident response system.

                 Direct that incident managers and response organizations in their
                  jurisdictions train, exercise, and use ICS in their response operations.

              At the organizational/operational level, incident managers and emergency
              response organizations should:

                 Integrate ICS into functional, system-wide emergency operations policies,
                  plans, and procedures.

                 Provide ICS training for responders, supervisors, and command-level
                  officers.

                 Conduct exercises for responders at all levels, including responders from
                  all disciplines and jurisdictions.

              NIMS integrates existing best practices into a consistent, nationwide approach
              to domestic incident management that is applicable at all jurisdictional levels
              and across functional disciplines. Six major components make up the NIMS
              system approach:




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                     Page 2.7
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

              NIMS (Continued)

                 Command and Management: NIMS standard incident command
                  structures are based on three key organizational systems:

                     ICS: ICS defines the operating characteristics, interactive management
                      components, and structure of incident management and emergency
                      response organizations engaged throughout the life cycle of an
                      incident.
                     Multiagency Coordination Systems: Multiagency coordination systems
                      define the operating characteristics, interactive management
                      components, and organizational structure of supporting incident
                      management entities engaged at the Federal, State, local, Tribal, and
                      regional levels through mutual-aid agreements and other assistance
                      arrangements.
                     Public Information Systems : Public information systems refer to
                      processes, procedures, and systems for communicating timely and
                      accurate information to the public during crisis or emergency situations.

                 Preparedness: Effective incident management begins with a host of
                  preparedness activities conducted on a “steady-state” basis, well in
                  advance of any potential incident. Preparedness involves an integrated
                  combination of planning, training, exercises, personnel qualification and
                  certification standards, equipment acquisition and certification standards,
                  and publication management processes and activities.

                 Resource Management: NIMS defines standardized mechanisms and
                  establishes requirements for processes to describe, inventory, mobilize,
                  dispatch, track, and recover resources over the life cycle of an incident.

                 Communications and Information Management: NIMS identifies the
                  requirements for a standardized framework for communications,
                  information management (collection, analysis, and dissemination), and
                  information sharing at all levels of incident management.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 2.8
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

              NIMS (Continued)

                 Supporting Technologies: Technology and technological systems
                  provide supporting capabilities essential to implementing and refining
                  NIMS. These include voice and data communications systems, information
                  management systems (e.g., recordkeeping and resource tracking), and
                  data display systems. Also included are specialized technologies that
                  facilitate ongoing operations and incident management activities in
                  situations that call for unique technology-based capabilities.

                 Ongoing Management and Maintenance: This component establishes
                  an activity to provide strategic direction for and oversight of NIMS,
                  supporting both routine review and the continuous refinement of the
                  system and its components over the long term.

              Additional information about NIMS can be found online at
              www.fema.gov/NIMS.

              The NRP

              The NRP is an all-discipline, all-hazard plan for the management of domestic
              incidents. The NRP provides the structure and mechanisms to coordinate and
              integrate incident management activities and emergency support functions
              across Federal, State, local, and Tribal government entities; the private sector;
              and nongovernmental organizations.

              The NRP:

                 Builds on what works from previous plans and incident responses.
                  The NRP represents a true “national” framework in terms of both product
                  and process. The NRP development process included extensive vetting
                  and coordination with Federal, State, local, and Tribal agencies;
                  nongovernmental organizations; private-sector entities; and the first-
                  responder and emergency management communities across the country.
                  The NRP incorporates best practices from a wide variety of incident
                  management disciplines, including fire, rescue, emergency management,
                  law enforcement, public works, and emergency medical services. The
                  collective input received from public- and private-sector partners has been,
                  and will continue to be, absolutely critical to implementing and refining the
                  core concepts included in the plan.

                 Forges new approaches and mechanisms to address today’s threats.
                  The NRP is not just a compilation of elements. The whole is vastly more
                  than the sum of its parts.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 2.9
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

              The NRP (Continued)

                 Addresses the complete spectrum of incident management activities.
                  The NRP is unique and far reaching. For the first time, the NRP eliminates
                  critical seams and ties together a complete spectrum of incident
                  management activities, including the prevention of, preparedness for,
                  response to, and recovery from terrorist incidents, major natural disasters,
                  and other major emergencies.

                 Uses NIMS to establish a framework for coordination among Federal,
                  State, local, and Tribal governments; nongovernmental organizations;
                  and the private sector. The NRP is built on NIMS, which provides a
                  consistent doctrinal framework for incident management at all jurisdictional
                  levels, regardless of incident cause, size, or complexity.

              The NRP incorporates relevant portions of and supersedes the following plans:

                 The Federal Response Plan (FRP).

                 The U.S. Government Interagency Domestic Terrorism Concept of
                  Operations Plan (CONPLAN). The Terrorism Incident Law Enforcement
                  and Investigation Annex of the NRP revises and replaces the CONPLAN.
                  The annex describes the coordination of law enforcement and investigation
                  efforts during terrorist attacks.

                 The Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (FRERP). The
                  Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex of the NRP revises and replaces the
                  FRERP. The annex provides guidelines for radiological incidents that are
                  considered Incidents of National Significance and for those that fall below
                  the threshold of an Incident of National Significance.

                 Initial National Response Plan (INRP).

              These plans are linked to the NRP in the context of Incidents of National
              Significance but remain as stand-alone documents in that they also provide
              detailed protocols for responding to routine incidents that normally are
              managed by Federal agencies without the need for DHS coordination. The
              NRP also incorporates other existing Federal emergency response and
              incident management plans (with appropriate modifications and revisions) as
              integrated components, operational supplements, or supporting tactical plans.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                  Page 2.10
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

              The NRP (Continued)

              The NRP, as a core operational plan for national incident management, also
              establishes national-level coordinating structures, processes, and protocols
              that will be incorporated into certain existing Federal interagency incident- or
              hazard-specific plans (for example, the National Oil and Hazardous
              Substances Pollution Contingency Plan) designed to implement the specific
              statutory authorities and responsibilities of various departments and agencies
              in specific contingency scenarios.

              The main benefit of the NRP is that it fully integrates emergency response and
              law enforcement elements into a single national strategy.

              The full text of the NRP can be downloaded at
              www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interweb/assetlibrary/NRP_FullText.pdf.

              What These Changes Mean to You

              Depending on your jurisdiction, the changes to the emergency planning
              requirements may mean little—or a lot. Minimally, the changes mean that your
              jurisdiction must:

                 Use ICS to manage all incidents, including recurring and/or planned special
                  events.

                 Integrate all response agencies and entities into a single, seamless
                  system, from the Incident Command Post, through Department Emergency
                  Operations Centers (DEOCs) and local Emergency Operations Centers
                  (EOCs), through the State EOC to the regional- and national-level entities.

                 Develop and implement a public information system.

                 Identify and type all resources according to established standards.

                 Ensure that all personnel are trained properly for the job(s) they perform.

                 Ensure communications interoperability and redundancy.

              Problems may still arise, and decisions will need to be made as an emergency
              unfolds, but following the guidance provided by your EOP and these new
              requirements will lead to a smoother and more predictable response effort.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                     Page 2.11
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


              Problem-Solving Model

              There are many different decision-making/problem-solving models that you
              can use. The five-step model shown below has proven effective in emergency
              situations. When using this model, each step may be completed quickly, but
              every step must be considered. It is not necessary to document each step, but
              it is important to think through every step.

                                                Step 1: Identify
                                                  the problem



                             Step 5: Evaluate                      Step 2: Explore
                               the solution
                                   situation                         alternatives




                                 Step 4: Implement                 Step 3: Select
                                    the solution                   an alternative



              In the remainder of this unit, we will take a closer look at each of the five steps
              and how you can apply them to emergencies.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                     Page 2.12
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


                  Step 1. Identify the Problem

                  Problem identification is undoubtedly the most importantand the most
                  difficultstep in the process. All subsequent steps will be based on how you
                  define and assess the problem at hand.

                  What Is a “Problem”?

                  A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization that will
                  exist in the future, and that is considered undesirable by members of the
     Definition
                  organization.

                  Problem or Solution?

                  In carrying out Step 1, you must distinguish between a problem and its
                  solution. The most common error in problem solving is defining problems in
                  terms of their solutions. Sometimes people think that they are articulating
                  problems when actually they are stating a potential solution.

                  Here’s an example: Someone might say, “The problem is that we don’t have
                  an EOC.” The problem, however, is not that there is no EOC.

                     The problem is really that the emergency management community cannot
                      coordinate communications adequately during the response phase.

                     Establishing an EOC is a solution.

                  Delineating the Problem Parameters

                  Identifying the problem also involves analyzing the situation to determine the
                  extent of the problem. Problem parameters include:

                     What is happening (and is not happening).

                     Who is involved.

                     What the stakes are.

                  On the next page is a Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing
                  Problems. The checklist presents a set of questions that can help you define a
                  problem accurately. (This job aid is also provided in the Appendix for easy
                  reference at a later time.)




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                       Page 2.13
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


   Step 1 Job Aid: Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems

                            Question                            Yes       No
1. Is this a new problem?                                                 
2. Is the problem clearly and precisely stated?                           
3. What assumptions am I making about the problem? Are they               
   true?




4. What would happen if nothing were done about this problem?




5. Can the problem be restated in other terms? If yes, how?               




6. What data are known that bear on the problem?




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                      Page 2.14
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


    Step 1 Job Aid: Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems
                                      (Continued)

                             Question                                   Yes    No
7. Is the information accurate?                                                
8. Are there any precedents or rules about other procedures                    
   that apply to the problem? If so, what precedents or rules
   apply?




9. What additional facts are needed to analyze the problem?
   (List)




10. Is it possible to interpret the facts differently? How would that          
    affect the problem’s solution?




11. Do I have to make this decision, or does someone else? If                  
    this decision is someone else’s to make, whose is it?




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                           Page 2.15
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


                Step 2. Explore Alternatives

                The second step in the decision-making process is to explore alternative
                solutions to the problem identified in Step 1. This step really consists of two
                parts:

                   Generating alternatives

                   Evaluating alternatives

                The case study presented below provides an opportunity to examine a
                problem and generate alternative solutions. Read the case study, then identify
                the problem and generate as many alternative solutions as you can.

   Case Study
                Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options?


Auburn, Maine is a city of 24,000 located on the Androscoggin River, 50 miles north of
Portland. Like much of southern Maine, Auburn has a growing population of retirees and
elderly persons, many of whom reside in assisted-living communities.

It is early December, and much of southwestern Maine has been under the influence of a low-
pressure system. Unlike most nor’easters that occur regularly this time of year, however, this
system features warm air aloft with below-freezing surface temperatures. Thus, the rain that is
falling is freezing on roads, trees, and electric lines. Electricity has been interrupted to a large
portion of the city as wires collapse under the increasing weight of the accumulating ice.

At 11:00 p.m., the local emergency manager receives a call forwarded from emergency
dispatch stating that the Owl’s Nest nursing home’s generator has failed. Owl’s Nest is a
nursing home, assisted-living community of approximately 250 residents. Of those,
approximately 80 have been affected by the generator failure. These patients are in the
nursing home portion of the facility, and many are chronically ill and very susceptible to the
effects of the cold and dampness. For now, the Owl’s Nest administrator has gathered the
affected residents in the recreation room and is using blankets to keep them warm. This is not
a good long-term option, however, because the temperature is expected to drop into the teens
by morning.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                       Page 2.16
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


    Answers
                Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options? (Continued)


                                   Answers to the Case Study

What is the problem in this case study?

If you determined that the problem in this case study centers around how to keep the nursing
home residents warm, your answer is correct. (Note: If your problem statement centers on
either the weather or the failed generator, please review the problem identification section of
this unit again. Both the weather and the failed generator are causes of the current problem.)

What alternatives are available?

Some of the options that you may have developed for this case study could be:

   Evacuate the affected residents to another portion of the facility or to a shelter.
   Bring in more blankets, hot drinks, etc., to keep the residents warm.
   Bring in a portable generator and commercial space heaters.

You may have developed other alternatives as well. Remember, at this point in the problem-
solving process, you should be generating alternatives only, not evaluating the feasibility of the
alternatives.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                       Page 2.17
UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS


              Step 2. Explore Alternatives (Continued)

              Techniques for Generating Alternatives

              So, what process did you use to generate the alternatives for the case study?
              There are three ways to generate alternatives.

                 Brainstorming can be done individually or in a group. Brainstorming
                  requires an environment in which the participants (individuals or group
                  members) are free to “think out loud.” Participants blurt out as many ideas
                  as possible within a specified time period. No evaluation of ideas is
                  permitted so as to encourage the free flow of creative ideas. These ideas
                  are recorded. When the specified time period ends, then evaluation of the
                  ideas begins.

                 Surveys economically tap the ideas of a large group of respondents.
                  Surveys present respondents with the problem and a series of alternative
                  solutions.

                 Discussion groups should consist of those who are directly involved in
                  decision making. In generating alternatives, the group members should:

                     Be comprehensive.
                     Avoid initial judgments (as in brainstorming).
                     Focus on the problem, not on the personalities of the people involved in
                      the decision-making process. (But be sensitive to the impact of
                      personalities on the process.)

              Criteria for Evaluating Alternatives

              After you have generated alternative solutions, you must have some means of
              evaluating them. Step 2 Job Aid lists criteria by which you can evaluate
              alternatives.

              Another part of evaluation is identifying contingencies—what could go wrong.
              Think in terms of Murphy’s Law (“If anything can go wrong, it will.”) and identify
              what could get in the way of solving the problem you are facing.




Decision Making and Problem Solving                                                    Page 2.18

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Is241

  • 1. Decision Making and Problem Solving Independent Study November 2005 FEMA
  • 2. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Course Overview........................................................................................................................ 1 Unit 1: Course Introduction Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1.1 Decisions in Emergency Management.....................................................................................1.1 Case Study 1.1—Sebring County............................................................................................1.2 Decision Points......................................................................................................................... 1.3 What’s at Stake?...................................................................................................................... 1.3 About This Course....................................................................................................................1.4 Activities and Exercises............................................................................................................1.5 Job Aids.................................................................................................................................... 1.5 Knowledge Checks................................................................................................................... 1.5 Appendix.................................................................................................................................. 1.5 Course Objectives.................................................................................................................... 1.6 How Will You Benefit?..............................................................................................................1.6 How to Complete This Course..................................................................................................1.7 Sample Learning Schedule......................................................................................................1.8 Goal Setting.............................................................................................................................. 1.9 Activity: Personal Learning Goals..........................................................................................1.10 Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 1.11 Unit 2: The Decision-Making Process Introduction............................................................................................................................... 2.1 Problem Solving vs. Decision Making.......................................................................................2.1 Where Does the Process Begin?.............................................................................................2.2 Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation?...........................................................2.2 The Starting Point..................................................................................................................... 2.4 Recent Changes to Emergency Planning Requirements.........................................................2.6 Problem-Solving Model.......................................................................................................... 2.12 Step 1: Identify the Problem..................................................................................................2.13 Step 2: Explore Alternatives..................................................................................................2.16 Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options?............................................................................2.16 Step 3: Select an Alternative.................................................................................................2.20 Step 4: Implement the Solution.............................................................................................2.22 Activity: Implementing the Solution........................................................................................2.23 Step 5: Evaluate the Situation...............................................................................................2.27 Activity: Evaluating Your Solution..........................................................................................2.29 Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 2.31 For More Information.............................................................................................................. 2.31 Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 2.32 Decision Making and Problem Solving Page i
  • 3. COURSE OVERVIEW Page Unit 3: Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes Introduction............................................................................................................................... 3.1 What Is Psychological Type?...................................................................................................3.1 What Are Preferences?............................................................................................................3.2 Using Type Inventories to Determine Preferences...................................................................3.2 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ®............................................................................................3.3 Preferences and Decision Making............................................................................................3.4 Activity: Where Should You Flex?...........................................................................................3.5 Who Decides?.......................................................................................................................... 3.8 Successful Group Decision Making........................................................................................3.10 Activity: Individual or Group Decision?..................................................................................3.13 What Is an Effective Decision Maker?....................................................................................3.17 Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker...............................................................................3.17 Activity: Identifying Your Strengths and Limitations...............................................................3.19 Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 3.20 For More Information.............................................................................................................. 3.20 Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 3.21 Unit 4: Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving Introduction............................................................................................................................... 4.1 What Is Ethics?........................................................................................................................ 4.1 Ethical Issues and Emergencies..............................................................................................4.2 Activity: Ethical Issues and Emergencies................................................................................4.3 Components of Ethical Decision Making..................................................................................4.6 Applying the Problem-Solving Model to Ethical Issues.............................................................4.7 Activity: Applying the Problem-Solving Model to Ethical Issues..............................................4.8 Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 4.11 For More Information.............................................................................................................. 4.11 Knowledge Check.................................................................................................................. 4.12 Unit 5: Decision Making in an Emergency Introduction............................................................................................................................... 5.1 Decision Making and Stress.....................................................................................................5.1 Case Study: Hurricane Hortence.............................................................................................5.3 Summary and Transition........................................................................................................ 5.10 Unit 6: Course Summary Introduction............................................................................................................................... 6.1 The Decision-Making Process..................................................................................................6.1 The Problem-Solving Model.....................................................................................................6.2 Decision-Making Styles............................................................................................................6.3 Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker.................................................................................6.4 Ethical Decision Making............................................................................................................ 6.5 The Final Step.......................................................................................................................... 6.6 Appendix A: Job Aids Decision Making and Problem Solving Page ii
  • 5. COURSE OVERVIEW About This Course Being able to make decisions and solve problems effectively is a necessary and vital part of the job for every emergency manager, planner, and responder. This course is designed to improve your decision-making skills. It addresses:  The decision-making process  Decision-making styles  Attributes of an effective decision maker  Ethical decision making and problem solving FEMA’s Independent Study Program FEMA’s Independent Study Program is one of the delivery channels that the Emergency Management Institute (EMI) uses to provide training to the general public and specific audiences. This course is part of the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA’s) Independent Study Program. In addition to this course, the Independent Study Program includes courses in floodplain management, radiological emergency management, the role of the emergency manager, hazardous materials, disaster assistance, the role of the Emergency Operations Center, and an orientation to community disaster exercises. FEMA’s independent study courses are available at no charge and include a final examination. You may apply individually or through group enrollment. When enrolling for a course, you must include your name, mailing address, social security number, and the title of the course in which you want to enroll. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1
  • 6. COURSE OVERVIEW FEMA’s Independent Study Program FEMA Independent Study Program Administrative Office Emergency Management Institute 16825 South Seton Avenue Emmitsburg, MD 21727 (301) 447-1200 Information about FEMA’s Independent Study Program also is available on the Internet at: http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS Each request will be reviewed and directed to the appropriate course manager or program office for assistance. Final Examination This course includes a written Final Examination, which you must complete and return to FEMA’s Independent Study Office for scoring. To obtain credit for taking this course, you must successfully complete (75 percent correct) this examination regardless of whether you complete this course through self- instruction or through group instruction. You may take the Final Examination as many times as necessary. Course Completion The course completion deadline for all FEMA Independent Study courses is 1 year from the date of enrollment. The date of enrollment is the date that the EMI Independent Study Office will use for completion of all required course work, including the Final Examination. If you do not complete this course, including the Final Examination, within that timeframe, your enrollment will be terminated. Decision Making and Problem Solving has no prerequisites. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2
  • 7. COURSE OVERVIEW How to Complete This Course Work through this course at a pace that is comfortable for you. You should resist the temptation to rush through the material, however. Take enough time with each unit to ensure that you have mastered its content before proceeding to the next. Knowledge Checks To help you know when to proceed, each unit is followed by a Knowledge Check that addresses the material contained in the unit. The Knowledge Check asks you to answer questions that apply to what you have learned in the unit. The answers to the Knowledge Check follow each Knowledge Check. When you finish each exercise, check your answers, and review the parts of the text that you do not understand. Do not proceed to the next unit until you are sure that you have mastered the current unit. When you have completed all units, take the Final Examination online, or use the answer sheet (if provided in your course packet). EMI will score your test and notify you of the results. Begin the Course You may begin the course now. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 3
  • 8. Unit 1: Course Introduction
  • 9. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Introduction Decision making and problem solving are critically important skill areas for emergency managers, planners, first responders, voluntary agency coordinators, and other professionals in emergency management. As an emergency management professional, your ability to identify current and potential problems and to make sound, timely decisions before and during an emergency can literally affect the lives and well-being of the local citizenry. Your decisions can impact the ability of response agencies to do their jobs and can make the difference in how quickly the community is able to recover from an event. Decisions in Emergency Management How often are your decision-making abilities tested when an emergency threatens? Let’s begin with an example. Review the case study that is provided on the next page. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.1
  • 10. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Case Study Case Study 1.1—Sebring County Instructions: Read the following case study. As you read, try to identify what decisions must be made by the emergency manager or other emergency management officials. Jot down your ideas before continuing. Background: Heavy rainstorms have hit, and counties across the entire State are faced with flash flooding to varying degrees. The town of Westfield located in Sebring County, one of the hardest hit counties in the Statesits high and well away from the river, so flooding is usually not a concern. Last year, a new spillway was built to increase the capacity of the town reservoir to about 44 million gallons. Two towns downstream, Ambry and Gilson, are less than a 5-minute drive from Westfield. Each town has about 2400 residents, most of them along U.S. Route 270. Event chronology: Late afternoon Rain begins, and weather forecasters predict it will be a strong, slow-moving storm, which will produce heavy rain. 7:41 p.m. A flash flood watch is issued by the National Weather Service. 8:00 p.m. Heavy rains begin. 9:30 p.m. The county engineer stations an employee on the dam to watch for and report any problems. The employee sees water pouring a good 2 feet over the spillway. (It was later estimated that the reservoir was holding 65 million gallons during and after the storm.) 11:00 p.m. Five inches of rain have fallen over the last 3 hours. 12:30 a.m. The employee sees a section of dirt break away. 1:00 a.m. When water recedes below the top of the dam, county employees discover that water has eaten around the spillway and is gradually carving away the side of the earthen dam. A first attempt at closing the hole with sandbags fails when the force of the water carries the bags right through. 1:30 a.m. The Sebring County Emergency Program Manager is now meeting with the mayor of Westfield, the county engineer, the public works director, the fire chief, and the police chief to discuss the situation. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.2
  • 11. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Decision Points What decision points did you identify in the case study? If you noted that the central problem is that if the dam breaks, the people in the downstream towns will be flooded, you’re absolutely correct. Numerous decisions must be made to address this problem. Some of the key decisions that must be made are shown below, and you probably identified others as well.  Should residents in the two downstream towns be evacuated?  If the decision is to evacuate, when should the evacuation take place?  Who will notify the citizens of the evacuation, and how?  What additional resources will be necessary to accomplish the evacuation and provide any shelter needed?  What is the most effective way to keep the dam from collapsing, and what resources will be needed to accomplish that? What’s At Stake? The ability to make sound, timely decisions during an emergency event is critical. Good problem solving and decision making can avert tragedy and help the community recover from the event more quickly. Conversely, poor decision makingor the absence of decisions potentially can result in injury or death to victims or responders. (Clearly, in our case study, if the Emergency Manager makes a poor decision—or simply doesn’t make any decision before it’s too late—the consequences could be disastrous for the residents of Ambry and Gilson.) But the repercussions don’t stop there. Poor decisions in the early stages of an event can make the responders’ job more difficult and more dangerous. In addition, they can give rise to much more critical or complex decisions later onto say nothing of the effect on community relations. Good decision-making skills are one of your most critical assets as an emergency management professional. This course will help you develop those skills. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.3
  • 12. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION About This Course Decision Making and Problem Solving contains six units. Each unit is described below.  Unit 1, Course Introduction, provides an overview of the course.  Unit 2, The Decision-Making Process, presents a five-step, problem- solving model and opportunities to apply the model to case studies. The unit also explores factors that affect decision making.  Unit 3, Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes, discusses the impact of personality type and personal preferences on decision-making style. During this unit, you will complete a personality type inventory and consider what that information indicates about your approach to decision making. This unit also explores what it takes to be an effective decision maker and what you can do to capitalize on your strengths and minimize your limitations.  Unit 4, Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving, focuses on situations involving ethical decisions and discusses the components of ethical decision making.  Unit 5, Decision Making in an Emergency, gives you an opportunity to apply decision-making and problem-solving skills in a case study situation.  Unit 6, Course Summary, summarizes key concepts from the entire course. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.4
  • 13. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Activities and Exercises This course will involve you actively as a learner by including activities and exercises that highlight basic concepts. It will also provide you with guidance on actions required in specific situations through the use of field-specific case studies. Job Aids Throughout the course, you will find job aids designed to guide you through a variety of decision-making tasks. They can be used during the course, and you will find them useful later, after you have completed the course. Knowledge Checks At the end of most units you will find a knowledge self-check. You can use these self-administered quizzes to verify that you have learned the content of the unit before moving on. Appendix In addition to the six units, this course includes an appendix that contains copies of all the job aids presented in the course. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.5
  • 14. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Course Objectives In Decision Making and Problem Solving, you will learn a decision-making model that can be used to make decisions and solve problems in both emergency and day-to-day situations. This self-paced course will provide you with a foundation of knowledge that will enable you to:  Explain the need for decision-making and problem-solving skills in emergency management.  Describe how decisions made before an emergency help the decision- making process during an emergency.  Distinguish between a problem and its causes or symptoms.  Analyze your personal attributes and relate them to your decision-making style.  Describe the personal attributes of an effective decision maker.  Explain how the ethics of a situation can affect decision making and problem solving.  Apply a model for problem solving and decision making to emergency management scenarios. How Will You Benefit? You will benefit in several ways by taking this course:  You will learn how to identify a problem—as distinguished from its causes or symptoms. Failure to identify the problem properly is one of the main reasons for poor decision making.  You will learn a model for problem solving—and learn how to apply the model as a way of improving your decision making.  You will become more aware of your own personal attributes as a decision maker and use that awareness as a starting point for improving your decision-making ability. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.6
  • 15. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION How To Complete This Course This course is designed so that you can complete it on your own at your own pace. Take a break after each unit, and give yourself time to think about the material, particularly how it applies to your work as an emergency management professional and the decision-making situations you have encountered or anticipate encountering on the job. Remember to complete the activities and case study exercises that are presented during the course. These activities and exercises emphasize different learning points, so be sure to complete all of them. Compare your answers to the answers provided following each activity or exercise. If your answers are correct, continue on with the material. If any of your answers are wrong, go back and review the material before continuing. Take the short “Knowledge Check” quizzes at the end of Units 2 through 5. Check your answers using the answer key that follows each Knowledge Check. If you missed any questions, go back and review the material again. After you have completed all of the units, complete the Final Examination that is available online through the Emergency Management Institute’s Independent Study office, using the supplied answer sheet. To obtain credit for taking this course, you must successfully complete this examination (75 percent correct). EMI will score your test and notify you of the results. You may take the Final Examination as many times as necessary. Sample Learning Schedule Complete this course at your own pace. You should be able to finish the entire courseincluding pretest, units, knowledge checks, and final examinationin approximately 6 or 7 hours. The following learning schedule is only an example, intended to show relative times devoted to each unit. Unit Suggested Time Unit 1: Course Introduction 1 hour Unit 2: The Decision-Making Process 1 hour Unit 3: Identifying Decision-Making Styles and Attributes 1 hour 45 minutes Unit 4: Ethical Decision Making and Problem Solving 1 hour Unit 5: Decision Making in an Emergency 1 hour Unit 6: Course Summary 30 minutes Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.7
  • 16. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Goal Setting What do you hope to gain through completing Decision Making and Problem Solving? Depending on your role in emergency management, your prior experience in decision-making and problem solving situations, and your current level of expertise in these areas, your goals may be slightly different from those of another emergency management professional. Clarifying your goals will help you gain the most from the time you spend completing this course. Take a few minutes to complete the following activity. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.8
  • 17. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Activity: Personal Learning Goals Activity Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to develop personal goals for this course. Instructions: 1. Consider the following information:  The course objectives.  The potential benefits of completing this course.  Your own decision-making experience. Reflect on emergencies in which you have participated, the decisions that were made during those emergencies, and the consequences of those decisions. What have you learnedeither positive or negativefrom those experiences? 2. Think about what you would like to accomplish through this course. Then list three (or more) personal goals for improving your decision-making and problem-solving skills. My Course Goals 1. ______________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________ Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.9
  • 18. UNIT 1: COURSE INTRODUCTION Summary and Transition In this unit, you previewed the course and considered your own goals for improving your decision-making and problem-solving skills. Unit 2 discusses the decision-making process. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 1.10
  • 19. Unit 2: The Decision-Making Process
  • 20. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Introduction Whether making ordinary day-to-day decisions or critical, time-sensitive decisions in an emergency, using a standard problem-solving model will help ensure that your decisions are rational and logical. In this unit, you will learn a five-step, problem-solving model. After completing this unit, you should be able to:  Describe how decisions made before an emergency affect decision making and problem solving during an emergency.  Describe the steps in the problem-solving model.  Review a case study and distinguish the problem from its causes and symptoms. Problem Solving vs. Decision Making To begin, let’s clarify what we mean by problem solving and decision making and how they relate to one another.  Problem solving is a set of activities designed to analyze a situation systematically and generate, implement, and evaluate solutions.  Decision making is a mechanism for making choices at each step of the problem-solving process. Decision making is part of problem solving, and decision making occurs at every step of the problem-solving process. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.1
  • 21. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Where Does the Process Begin? Emergency decisions have their beginnings well before any emergency strikes. Often the number, type, and magnitude of decisions and problems that must be addressed during an emergency are a direct outgrowth of decisions that were (or weren’t) made at the outset of the emergency, or even before the emergency began. The following case study illustrates how early decisions can affect later decisions. Read the case study. Then, analyze the decision to determine how the current decision can affect later decisions. Case Study Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation? The town of Fort Rice, North Dakota is located on the western bank of the Missouri River. A farming and ranching community, Fort Rice’s residents are known for their tenacity in fighting the weather—and the river—to earn a living. It has been raining for 12 hours, and the National Weather Service has forecast severe flooding conditions through most of the upper Midwest. The Missouri River and the rivers and streams that feed it are on the rise and are expected to continue to rise over the next several days as the storm is held in place by a large high-pressure area that is currently stationary over the Ohio Valley. Despite the fact that sandbagging crews have been supporting all local levees, severe flooding is a near certainty. The mayor and all emergency management professionals from Fort Rice have been keeping abreast of the situation since before the rain began. They have been communicating with the local Weather Forecast Office, as well as county and State emergency management personnel. The question on the table at this point is not whether to issue an evacuation order but whether to make the evacuation mandatory. Historically, farmers and ranchers have been unwilling to evacuate, even when flooding is severe. Most have grown up in the area and are aware of the damage that flooding can cause, but they are also aware of their investment in their land and livestock and will fight to save what they can. After considerable discussion, the mayor, with the emergency management group’s concurrence, makes the decision to activate the Emergency Alert System and issue the evacuation order. But although they decide to word the message strongly, they do not make the evacuation mandatory. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.2
  • 22. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Answers Case Study 2.1—Mandatory or Voluntary Evacuation? (Continued) Answers to the Case Study What is the potential impact of the decision not to make the evacuation mandatory? The early decision to issue an evacuation order but to not make it mandatory can seriously affect later decisions. Some of the ways in which later decisions can be affected are listed below. You may have additional examples as well.  Farmers and ranchers who choose not to evacuate now may be in a position of needing to evacuate later, when evacuation will be more dangerous or impossible. How will the decision about how and when to effect an emergency rescue be made?  Emergency responders who may later be required to assist with emergency rescues will be placed at risk. Who will make the decision to send responders into the fast-moving waters? When will that decision be made?  Response resources deployed for emergency rescues may cause resource shortfalls elsewhere. How does one weigh the overall benefit of deploying resources for emergency rescues versus the cost of those resources not being available for other purposes (which may also involve life-saving efforts)?  The overall cost for the response will increase if response resources must be deployed to assist with emergency rescues. While cost will not be an issue where the potential loss of life is involved, the decision not to require evacuation will affect later decisions about how to cover the overall costs of the emergency. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.3
  • 23. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS The Starting Point As an emergency management professional, you have at your disposal a variety of resources designed to guide your decision making during emergencies. When a jurisdiction develops an Emergency Operations Plan (EOP), Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), or other procedural documents, it provides the foundation for decision making that will occur during emergencies. Many decisions are made during the development of these documents, and there are real advantages to having made those decisions during the planning process rather than in the heat of an emergency.  Decisions made under non-emergency conditions can be made deliberately, without the stress factors that accompany crisis decisions.  Absence of critical time factors permits the jurisdiction to use group process, gather input from all of the involved parties, and achieve group consensus.  The planning process allows enough time to consider all contingencies and weigh alternative responses fully.  Planning in advance gives the jurisdiction time to obtain “buy-in” from the many stakeholders, to train and exercise the plan, and to educate the public about what to expect—and what to do—in an emergency. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.4
  • 24. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS The Starting Point (Continued) Clearly, if your jurisdiction has an Emergency Operations Plan and procedures in place, that is the place to start your decision-making process when an emergency threatens or occurs. It will answer many questions, such as:  Who is responsible for what? Who makes decisions?  What organization should be used during response and recovery?  What triggers each kind of action?  How does communication take place?  Under what conditions is evacuation initiated?  What provisions are there for mass care? As you implement the EOP, you can use the problem-solving model that is included later in this unit at any stage of an emergency response to ensure that you have the greatest possible control over the situation. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.5
  • 25. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Recent Changes to Emergency Planning Requirements The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, illustrated the need for all levels of government, the private sector, and nongovernmental agencies to prepare for, protect against, respond to, and recover from a wide spectrum of events that exceed the capabilities of any single entity. These events require a unified and coordinated national approach to planning and to domestic incident management. To address this need, the President signed a series of Homeland Security Presidential Directives (HSPDs) that were intended to develop a common approach to preparedness and response. Two HSPDs are of particular importance in effective decision making for your jurisdiction:  HSPD-5, Management of Domestic Incidents, identifies steps for improved coordination in response to incidents. It requires the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to coordinate with other Federal departments and agencies and State, local, and Tribal governments to establish a National Response Plan (NRP) and a National Incident Management System (NIMS).  HSPD-8, National Preparedness, describes the way Federal departments and agencies will prepare. It requires DHS to coordinate with other Federal departments and agencies—and with State, local, and Tribal governments to develop a National Preparedness Goal. Together, NIMS, the NRP, and the National Preparedness Goal define what needs to be done to prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from a major event; how it needs to be done; and how well it needs to be done. These efforts align Federal, State, local, and Tribal entities; the private sector; and nongovernmental agencies to provide an effective and efficient national structure for preparedness, incident management, and emergency response. NIMS NIMS provides a consistent framework for incident management at all jurisdictional levels, regardless of the cause, size, or complexity of the incident. Building on the Incident Command System (ICS), NIMS provides the nation’s first responders and authorities with the same foundation for incident management for terrorist attacks, natural disasters, and all other emergencies. NIMS requires that ICS be institutionalized and used to manage all domestic incidents. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.6
  • 26. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS NIMS (Continued) According to the NIMS Integration Center, “institutionalizing the use of ICS” means that government officials, incident managers, and emergency response organizations at all jurisdictional levels adopt the Incident Command System. Actions to institutionalizing ICS takes place at two levels—policy and organizational/operational. At the policy level, institutionalizing ICS means government officials:  Adopt ICS through executive order, proclamation or legislation as the jurisdiction’s official incident response system.  Direct that incident managers and response organizations in their jurisdictions train, exercise, and use ICS in their response operations. At the organizational/operational level, incident managers and emergency response organizations should:  Integrate ICS into functional, system-wide emergency operations policies, plans, and procedures.  Provide ICS training for responders, supervisors, and command-level officers.  Conduct exercises for responders at all levels, including responders from all disciplines and jurisdictions. NIMS integrates existing best practices into a consistent, nationwide approach to domestic incident management that is applicable at all jurisdictional levels and across functional disciplines. Six major components make up the NIMS system approach: Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.7
  • 27. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS NIMS (Continued)  Command and Management: NIMS standard incident command structures are based on three key organizational systems:  ICS: ICS defines the operating characteristics, interactive management components, and structure of incident management and emergency response organizations engaged throughout the life cycle of an incident.  Multiagency Coordination Systems: Multiagency coordination systems define the operating characteristics, interactive management components, and organizational structure of supporting incident management entities engaged at the Federal, State, local, Tribal, and regional levels through mutual-aid agreements and other assistance arrangements.  Public Information Systems : Public information systems refer to processes, procedures, and systems for communicating timely and accurate information to the public during crisis or emergency situations.  Preparedness: Effective incident management begins with a host of preparedness activities conducted on a “steady-state” basis, well in advance of any potential incident. Preparedness involves an integrated combination of planning, training, exercises, personnel qualification and certification standards, equipment acquisition and certification standards, and publication management processes and activities.  Resource Management: NIMS defines standardized mechanisms and establishes requirements for processes to describe, inventory, mobilize, dispatch, track, and recover resources over the life cycle of an incident.  Communications and Information Management: NIMS identifies the requirements for a standardized framework for communications, information management (collection, analysis, and dissemination), and information sharing at all levels of incident management. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.8
  • 28. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS NIMS (Continued)  Supporting Technologies: Technology and technological systems provide supporting capabilities essential to implementing and refining NIMS. These include voice and data communications systems, information management systems (e.g., recordkeeping and resource tracking), and data display systems. Also included are specialized technologies that facilitate ongoing operations and incident management activities in situations that call for unique technology-based capabilities.  Ongoing Management and Maintenance: This component establishes an activity to provide strategic direction for and oversight of NIMS, supporting both routine review and the continuous refinement of the system and its components over the long term. Additional information about NIMS can be found online at www.fema.gov/NIMS. The NRP The NRP is an all-discipline, all-hazard plan for the management of domestic incidents. The NRP provides the structure and mechanisms to coordinate and integrate incident management activities and emergency support functions across Federal, State, local, and Tribal government entities; the private sector; and nongovernmental organizations. The NRP:  Builds on what works from previous plans and incident responses. The NRP represents a true “national” framework in terms of both product and process. The NRP development process included extensive vetting and coordination with Federal, State, local, and Tribal agencies; nongovernmental organizations; private-sector entities; and the first- responder and emergency management communities across the country. The NRP incorporates best practices from a wide variety of incident management disciplines, including fire, rescue, emergency management, law enforcement, public works, and emergency medical services. The collective input received from public- and private-sector partners has been, and will continue to be, absolutely critical to implementing and refining the core concepts included in the plan.  Forges new approaches and mechanisms to address today’s threats. The NRP is not just a compilation of elements. The whole is vastly more than the sum of its parts. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.9
  • 29. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS The NRP (Continued)  Addresses the complete spectrum of incident management activities. The NRP is unique and far reaching. For the first time, the NRP eliminates critical seams and ties together a complete spectrum of incident management activities, including the prevention of, preparedness for, response to, and recovery from terrorist incidents, major natural disasters, and other major emergencies.  Uses NIMS to establish a framework for coordination among Federal, State, local, and Tribal governments; nongovernmental organizations; and the private sector. The NRP is built on NIMS, which provides a consistent doctrinal framework for incident management at all jurisdictional levels, regardless of incident cause, size, or complexity. The NRP incorporates relevant portions of and supersedes the following plans:  The Federal Response Plan (FRP).  The U.S. Government Interagency Domestic Terrorism Concept of Operations Plan (CONPLAN). The Terrorism Incident Law Enforcement and Investigation Annex of the NRP revises and replaces the CONPLAN. The annex describes the coordination of law enforcement and investigation efforts during terrorist attacks.  The Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan (FRERP). The Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex of the NRP revises and replaces the FRERP. The annex provides guidelines for radiological incidents that are considered Incidents of National Significance and for those that fall below the threshold of an Incident of National Significance.  Initial National Response Plan (INRP). These plans are linked to the NRP in the context of Incidents of National Significance but remain as stand-alone documents in that they also provide detailed protocols for responding to routine incidents that normally are managed by Federal agencies without the need for DHS coordination. The NRP also incorporates other existing Federal emergency response and incident management plans (with appropriate modifications and revisions) as integrated components, operational supplements, or supporting tactical plans. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.10
  • 30. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS The NRP (Continued) The NRP, as a core operational plan for national incident management, also establishes national-level coordinating structures, processes, and protocols that will be incorporated into certain existing Federal interagency incident- or hazard-specific plans (for example, the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan) designed to implement the specific statutory authorities and responsibilities of various departments and agencies in specific contingency scenarios. The main benefit of the NRP is that it fully integrates emergency response and law enforcement elements into a single national strategy. The full text of the NRP can be downloaded at www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interweb/assetlibrary/NRP_FullText.pdf. What These Changes Mean to You Depending on your jurisdiction, the changes to the emergency planning requirements may mean little—or a lot. Minimally, the changes mean that your jurisdiction must:  Use ICS to manage all incidents, including recurring and/or planned special events.  Integrate all response agencies and entities into a single, seamless system, from the Incident Command Post, through Department Emergency Operations Centers (DEOCs) and local Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs), through the State EOC to the regional- and national-level entities.  Develop and implement a public information system.  Identify and type all resources according to established standards.  Ensure that all personnel are trained properly for the job(s) they perform.  Ensure communications interoperability and redundancy. Problems may still arise, and decisions will need to be made as an emergency unfolds, but following the guidance provided by your EOP and these new requirements will lead to a smoother and more predictable response effort. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.11
  • 31. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Problem-Solving Model There are many different decision-making/problem-solving models that you can use. The five-step model shown below has proven effective in emergency situations. When using this model, each step may be completed quickly, but every step must be considered. It is not necessary to document each step, but it is important to think through every step. Step 1: Identify the problem Step 5: Evaluate Step 2: Explore the solution situation alternatives Step 4: Implement Step 3: Select the solution an alternative In the remainder of this unit, we will take a closer look at each of the five steps and how you can apply them to emergencies. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.12
  • 32. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Step 1. Identify the Problem Problem identification is undoubtedly the most importantand the most difficultstep in the process. All subsequent steps will be based on how you define and assess the problem at hand. What Is a “Problem”? A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization that will exist in the future, and that is considered undesirable by members of the Definition organization. Problem or Solution? In carrying out Step 1, you must distinguish between a problem and its solution. The most common error in problem solving is defining problems in terms of their solutions. Sometimes people think that they are articulating problems when actually they are stating a potential solution. Here’s an example: Someone might say, “The problem is that we don’t have an EOC.” The problem, however, is not that there is no EOC.  The problem is really that the emergency management community cannot coordinate communications adequately during the response phase.  Establishing an EOC is a solution. Delineating the Problem Parameters Identifying the problem also involves analyzing the situation to determine the extent of the problem. Problem parameters include:  What is happening (and is not happening).  Who is involved.  What the stakes are. On the next page is a Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems. The checklist presents a set of questions that can help you define a problem accurately. (This job aid is also provided in the Appendix for easy reference at a later time.) Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.13
  • 33. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Step 1 Job Aid: Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems Question Yes No 1. Is this a new problem?   2. Is the problem clearly and precisely stated?   3. What assumptions am I making about the problem? Are they   true? 4. What would happen if nothing were done about this problem? 5. Can the problem be restated in other terms? If yes, how?   6. What data are known that bear on the problem? Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.14
  • 34. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Step 1 Job Aid: Checklist for Identifying, Defining, and Analyzing Problems (Continued) Question Yes No 7. Is the information accurate?   8. Are there any precedents or rules about other procedures   that apply to the problem? If so, what precedents or rules apply? 9. What additional facts are needed to analyze the problem? (List) 10. Is it possible to interpret the facts differently? How would that   affect the problem’s solution? 11. Do I have to make this decision, or does someone else? If   this decision is someone else’s to make, whose is it? Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.15
  • 35. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Step 2. Explore Alternatives The second step in the decision-making process is to explore alternative solutions to the problem identified in Step 1. This step really consists of two parts:  Generating alternatives  Evaluating alternatives The case study presented below provides an opportunity to examine a problem and generate alternative solutions. Read the case study, then identify the problem and generate as many alternative solutions as you can. Case Study Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options? Auburn, Maine is a city of 24,000 located on the Androscoggin River, 50 miles north of Portland. Like much of southern Maine, Auburn has a growing population of retirees and elderly persons, many of whom reside in assisted-living communities. It is early December, and much of southwestern Maine has been under the influence of a low- pressure system. Unlike most nor’easters that occur regularly this time of year, however, this system features warm air aloft with below-freezing surface temperatures. Thus, the rain that is falling is freezing on roads, trees, and electric lines. Electricity has been interrupted to a large portion of the city as wires collapse under the increasing weight of the accumulating ice. At 11:00 p.m., the local emergency manager receives a call forwarded from emergency dispatch stating that the Owl’s Nest nursing home’s generator has failed. Owl’s Nest is a nursing home, assisted-living community of approximately 250 residents. Of those, approximately 80 have been affected by the generator failure. These patients are in the nursing home portion of the facility, and many are chronically ill and very susceptible to the effects of the cold and dampness. For now, the Owl’s Nest administrator has gathered the affected residents in the recreation room and is using blankets to keep them warm. This is not a good long-term option, however, because the temperature is expected to drop into the teens by morning. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.16
  • 36. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Answers Case Study 2.2—What Are Your Options? (Continued) Answers to the Case Study What is the problem in this case study? If you determined that the problem in this case study centers around how to keep the nursing home residents warm, your answer is correct. (Note: If your problem statement centers on either the weather or the failed generator, please review the problem identification section of this unit again. Both the weather and the failed generator are causes of the current problem.) What alternatives are available? Some of the options that you may have developed for this case study could be:  Evacuate the affected residents to another portion of the facility or to a shelter.  Bring in more blankets, hot drinks, etc., to keep the residents warm.  Bring in a portable generator and commercial space heaters. You may have developed other alternatives as well. Remember, at this point in the problem- solving process, you should be generating alternatives only, not evaluating the feasibility of the alternatives. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.17
  • 37. UNIT 2: THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Step 2. Explore Alternatives (Continued) Techniques for Generating Alternatives So, what process did you use to generate the alternatives for the case study? There are three ways to generate alternatives.  Brainstorming can be done individually or in a group. Brainstorming requires an environment in which the participants (individuals or group members) are free to “think out loud.” Participants blurt out as many ideas as possible within a specified time period. No evaluation of ideas is permitted so as to encourage the free flow of creative ideas. These ideas are recorded. When the specified time period ends, then evaluation of the ideas begins.  Surveys economically tap the ideas of a large group of respondents. Surveys present respondents with the problem and a series of alternative solutions.  Discussion groups should consist of those who are directly involved in decision making. In generating alternatives, the group members should:  Be comprehensive.  Avoid initial judgments (as in brainstorming).  Focus on the problem, not on the personalities of the people involved in the decision-making process. (But be sensitive to the impact of personalities on the process.) Criteria for Evaluating Alternatives After you have generated alternative solutions, you must have some means of evaluating them. Step 2 Job Aid lists criteria by which you can evaluate alternatives. Another part of evaluation is identifying contingencies—what could go wrong. Think in terms of Murphy’s Law (“If anything can go wrong, it will.”) and identify what could get in the way of solving the problem you are facing. Decision Making and Problem Solving Page 2.18