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Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.17, 2013

www.iiste.org

Effect of Regulated Deficit Irrigation on Growth and Yield of
Sorghum
Adzemi Mat Arshad*, Ibrahim W and Wan Zaliha W S
Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia.
*Email address:adzemi@umt.edu.my
Abstract
The effects of regulated deficit irrigation technique on growth and yield of sorghum was examined in a
greenhouse at the Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science Research Farm, University Malaysia
Terengganu. The experiments regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) consisted of a factorial combination of irrigation
regimes and soil types laid in a randomised complete block design with eight treatments for each experiment
which resulted into a total of sixteen treatments. Irrigation regimes were at four levels namely: I100, I75, I50 and
I25 and the soil types were at two levels namely: Rhu Tapai and Rengam soil series. The treatments were
randomly assigned to experimental pots and replicated four times. A total of thirty two pots were used for the
study. All agronomic practices starting from land preparation to harvesting were adhered to and growth
parameters were recorded for both experiments. The result of the study shows that sorghum performance
improved under regulated deficit irrigation techniques. The results further revealed that, irrigation regimes I100
and I75 performed better in terms of growth parameters, crop water use efficiency, economic performance and
profitable measures under RDI and compared to I50 and I25 irrigation regimes. The study also revealed that there
were interaction effects of deficit irrigation and the two types of soil on some of the parameters used for the
study. The study, therefore, recommended the use of I75, for optimizing sorghum growth in this agro ecological
zone.
Keywords: Regulated deficit irrigation, Growth, Yield, Sorghum, Water use efficiency.
1. Introduction
Sorghum (sorghum bicolour L. Moench) is the third important cereal crop grown in the United States and the
fifth most important grain crop in the world after rice, maize and barley. In 2010, Nigeria was the world’s largest
producer of grain sorghum followed by the United States and India.(FAO 2012).The world harvested 55.6
million tonnes of sorghum in 2010.The world average annual yield for the 2010 sorghum crop was 1.37 tonnes
per hectare. It is one of the major sources of food for people in many developing countries (Doggett, 1988 and
Rorhbach et al., 2002). Sorghum is an important world crop used for food (as grain and in sorghum syrup or
sorghum molasses), fodder, the production of alcoholic beverages, as well as biofuels. It was originated in the
region of the North-East Africa comprising Ethiopia, Sudan and East Africa (Doggett, 1988). The crop is well
adapted to the range of environmental condition in semi-arid region of Africa with high variability (Doggett,
1988; Teshome et al. 1997).
Water-saving irrigations are used to improve the water productivity (WP) in recent years. Regulated deficit
irrigation is the water-saving irrigation method that cut down irrigation amounts of full irrigation to crops. The
amounts of irrigation reduction is crop-dependent and generally accompanied by no or minor yield loss that
increases the water productivity (Ahmadi et al., 2010b).
Irrigated agriculture generates a major contribution to food security. The pressure on limited fresh water
resources is on the increase. Irrigated agriculture is the largest water consuming sector and it faces competing
demand from other sectors such as the industrial and domestic sector (Graham and Vance 2003). Irrigated
agriculture uses more than 70% of the water withdrawn from the earth’s rivers in developing countries the
proportion excess 80% (FAO, 2002). The possibility for further irrigation development to meet food
requirement in the coming years is severely constraint by decreasing water resources. The agricultural sector
faces the challenge to produce more food with less water (FAO, 2003). Owing to the wide scale expansion of
irrigation farming water has become increasingly a scarce resource. Scarcity is further complicated when water
supplies are uncertain.
To sustain the growing world population, agricultural production will need to increase (Howell, 2001) yet the
portion of fresh water currently available for agriculture 72% is decreasing (Cai et al. 2003). Hence, sustainable
methods to increase crop water productivity are gaining in arid and semi-arid regions. Irrigated agriculture is the
primary user of diverted water globally, reaching a proportion that exceeds 70-80% of the total in the arid and
semi-arid zones. It is therefore not surprising that irrigated agriculture is perceived in those areas as the primary
source of water especially in the emergence drought situations.

1
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.17, 2013

www.iiste.org

Currently, irrigated agriculture is caught between two perceptions that are contradictory; some perceive that
agriculture is highly inefficient by growing water guzzling crops (Postel et al, 1996) while others emphasise that
irrigation is essential for the production of sufficient food in the future, given the anticipated increases in food
demand due to world population growth and changes in diets (Dyson, 1999). Nevertheless, irrigated agriculture
is still practiced in many areas in the world with complete disregard to basic principles of resources conservation
and sustainability. Therefore irrigation water management in an era of water scarcity will have to be carried out
most efficiently, aiming at saving water and at maximising the productivity. Deficit irrigation has widely been
reported as a valuable strategy for dry regions (English, 1990; Fereres and Soriano, 2007) where water is the
limiting factor in crop cultivation. The main objective of the study was to assess the effect of regulated deficit
irrigation on the growth and yield of sorghum cultivars.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Experimental Site
The study was conducted in a greenhouse at Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, with Latitude and Longitude; 50.20’N 1030 5’E. The Altitude is about 32 m. The climate of the area
is tropical rain-forest with a mean annual rainfall of 2911 mm (114.6 in).The average temperature in Terengganu
is 26.70C (min 220C, max 320C),while the mean relative humidity for an average year is recorded as 71.7% and
on a monthly basis it ranges from 68% in May and June to 79% in December. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.
Moench) cultivar Samsorg-KSV8 from Nigeria was used in this research. The plants were planted on Rengam
soil series and Rhu Tapai soil series (Table 1). Various treatments comprising of different regimes of irrigation
namely: (i) 100% RDI (ii) 75% RDI (iii) 50% RDI and (iv) 25% RDI, and one type of cultivar: SAMSORG14KSV8 and two types of soil. All treatments were layout by following a randomized complete block design with
four replications. A total of thirty two polythene bags were used. The total area of experimental field is 185.81m2
and four lateral line pipes, each dripper were attached with clipper for regulating the irrigation. Where connected
to the pipe with stoppers attached at each joints of laterals connecting to main pipes. Emitters or drippers were
attached according to plant spacing of 75 by 50cm. The gross depths for the deficit irrigation methods used in
this study were calculated as follows:
NWR
Gross irrigation depth for de icit irrigation =
Ef iciency of the system
A total of irrigation events were calculated and carried out during the growing Period of the cultivars under study.
An irrigation frequency were estimated and maintained during the irrigation throughout the growing period. The
crop water use for the sorghum cultivars was determined by estimating the reference crop evapotranspiration
from climatic data using the Hargreaves method (Hargreaves et al.2003). The method was adopted based on its
simplicity, which requires measuring mean maximum and minimum air temperatures. The method is second to
the FAO-56 Penman Monthieth method in terms of accuracy (Lopez-Urea et al., 2006).
The actual evaporation which is synonymous to crop water use was estimated by multiplying reference
evapotranspiration with appropriate value of crop coefficient (Doorenbos and Prutt, 1977).
ETc = Kc x ETc
Where;
Kc = crop coefficient
ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day
The sorghum cultivars SAMSORG 14-KSV8 developed by the Lake Chad Research Institute, Maiduguri, Borno
State were used in this experiment. The plant spacing recommended for sorghum is 75 x 50cm was adopted and
four seeds for hole was planted and later thinned to two plants per stand two weeks after germination. Weeding
was carried out manually throughout the growing period to reduce competition for space, water, light and
nutrients between crops.
Data collection started after transplanting. Growth parameters were recorded during the crop growth and
development. The leaf area indexes of each randomly selected plant were computed using the formulae
described by Duchemin et al (2006). Measurements were made at regular intervals of three weeks. The leaf
density was calculated by multiplying plant density (no of plants) with numbers of leaves per plant. Hence the
leaf area was calculated by multiplying leaf length with leaf width and the leaf shape correction factor where
0.75 is the leaf shape correction factor. However, leaf area index was finally determined by multiplying leaf
density with leaf area. Harvest indexes were determined using the procedures described by Huhn (1990). The
procedure used for the determination of the harvest indexes was by dividing grain yield with biological yield and
multiplying the output by one hundred. The crop water use efficiencies for the cultivar studied was determined
using the methods described by Kumar (2004) and Michael (2008).
Yield
Crop water use ef iciency =
Evapotranspiration
2
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.17, 2013

www.iiste.org

All data collected were subjected to statistical analysis of variance using the f-test with the aids of Statistical
Analysis System (SAS 9.2) software.
3. Results and Discussion
Table 2 shows the result of the plant height as affected by regulated deficit irrigation treatments. Data on plant
height were recorded on weekly basis after sowing. The result for the treatments indicates that, plant height
increased with crop growth and reached a maximum stage at the grain filling stage. Based on the findings of this
research, plant heights were affected by regulated deficit irrigation treatments significantly. The result also
shows that one hundred percent full irrigation (I100) produced taller plants compared to treatments seventy five
percent regulated deficit irrigation (I75), fifty percent regulated deficit irrigation (I50) and twenty five percent
regulated deficit irrigation (I25) Table 2 Treatment I100 and I75 are not significantly different from each other but
they are significantly different from treatments I50 and I25. Differences in plant height could be explained by
decrease in formation of node on the main stem due to water deficit throughout the growth period. The result is
in agreement the finding of Adamtey (2010). The result showed no significant difference between the soil types
(Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series) with respect to plant height. These could be due to the fact that the
experiment was carried out in a climate-controlled greenhouse.
The effect of regulated deficit irrigation treatments were significant at P<0.05 on the number of leaves of
sorghum as shown in Table 2. The data revealed that, in relation to soil types no significant difference was
observed. Regulated deficit irrigation effect at one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) of the
crop water requirement were found to have a significant effect on the number of leaves, at 0,05% level of
significant. The data revealed that, in relation to soil types no significant difference was observed. The effect of
regulated deficit irrigation on the number of leaves at one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) of
crop water requirement were not significantly different. However, the fifty percent (I50) and twenty five percent
treatments (I25) were significantly different from the other two treatments as shown in Table 2 and also no
significant different between Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series.
Table 2 presents the interaction effects of regulated deficit irrigation treatments and soils on leaf area index at
five leaf stage, that there was no significant difference among the treatments (P<.0.05) in terms of leaf area index
at five leaves stage which revealed that in both soils, individual treatment within Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil
Series statistically similar. This could be attributed to smaller size and less number of leaves at those particular
growth stages. Furthermore, in comparison between Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series treatments were
statistically not similar. The Rhu Tapai Soil Series had higher numerical values of regulated deficit irrigation
treatments than Rengam Soil Series as showed in Table 2.
The data in Tables 2 revealed that, for all treatments, the leaf area index (LAI) increased with crop development
and attained a maximum value at dough stage. Leaf area index was essentially low for the all treatments at five
leaves stage (FLS) and jointed stage (JS).This is in agreement with the findings of Howell et al: (2001).
However, they were statistically different at the jointed stage as shown in Table 2. The result indicated that, there
was significant different at the Five Leaf and Jointed Stages in comparison between the Rhu Tapai and Rengam
Soil Series, hence these could be due to early stages of the leaf development. The I100 and I75 treatments as
indicated in Table 2 revealed that were statistically similar in both Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series. These
might be due to improvement in the colloidal activity and efficient application of irrigation. The I100 and I75
treatments were statistically not different, while the I50 and I25 treatments were statistically also not different but
they were at par statistically compared with the other two treatments within the Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil
Series respectively at jointed stage as revealed in Table 2. At the flowering stage as shown in table 4.3iii there
was significant different among the applied regulated deficit irrigation, in Table 4.3iii as also indicated that the
I100 and I75 irrigation treatments were not significantly different at the flowering stage, I50 and I25 irrigation
treatments were statistically different. Likewise, they were at par compared with the other two irrigation
treatments (I100 and I50).
The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on leaf area index as shown in Table 2 revealed that there was
significant difference at the dough stage. The result also showed applying one hundred percent (I100) of the crop
water requirement produced high ratio of leaf area index compared to seventy five percent (I75), fifty percent (I50)
and twenty five percent (I25) of the crop water requirement. Treatments I75 and I50 are not significantly different
from each other but they are significantly different from I25 (Table 2)
The result on root dry matter revealed that, root dry matter was influenced by regulated deficit irrigation
treatments as shown in Table 3 which indicated significant difference among the treatments at 5% level of
significance. Treatment I100 produced the highest root dry matter. This was followed closely by treatment I75.
The result (Table 3) further revealed that, treatment I50 and I25 recorded low root dry matter. The result is at
tandem with the findings of Shape and Davies (1979). No significant difference was observed between the soil
types. The result revealed interaction effects of regulated deficit irrigation treatments and soils on stem girth.

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Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.17, 2013

www.iiste.org

Significant difference had occurred within the irrigation treatments of both Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series
respectively as shown in Table 3. I100 produced thicker stem girth compared I75 treatment. The result in Table 3
also revealed that, the I50 and I25 produced the smaller and smallest stem girths respectively. The data in Table 3
indicated interaction effect of irrigation and soils on stem girth. The Table 3 indicated that, there were interaction
effects of regulated deficit irrigation and soils on tillers. The mean values as indicated in Table 3 also showed
that, there was no significant difference among the I100 percent irrigation treatment, I75 irrigation treatment and
I50 irrigation treatment in terms of tillering but they were found to be statistically different with I25 irrigation
treatment. The result revealed that there was no statistical different within the both soil types in relation to the
irrigation applied.
The differences between the regulated deficit irrigation treatments I100, I75, I50, and I25 with respect to the grain
yield were found significant as shown in Table 4. The highest grain yield was from the one hundred percent I100
irrigation treatment followed by the fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatment. The yields were not significantly
different between the one hundred (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) irrigation treatments. The lowest yield was
obtained from I25percent irrigation treatment. Nevertheless, apart from genetic influenced for enhancing plant’s
growth hormones production, deficit irrigation strategies also increases growth hormones levels in the plants
(Dodd, 2009, Liu et al., 2006b) and attribute to better stomatal control over plant water use (Dodd, 2005). Table
4 also showed that Rhu Tapai Soil Series and Rengam Soil Series are not significantly different.
Table 4 revealed that differences among the regulated deficit irrigation treatments applied with respect to panicle
length were found to be significant. Means of the panicle lengths were 48.87cm, 47.0cm and 40.0cm at one
hundred (I100), seventy five percent (I75) and fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatments respectively. The panicle
lengths were statistically the same at one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) irrigation
treatments. However, they were found to be significant different from the panicle length at fifty percent (I50)
irrigation treatment (Table 4). The result also revealed that, there was no panicle length at twenty five percent
(I25) irrigation treatment, which was due to severe water deficit. Statistically no significant different at panicle
length in terms of the two types of soil used.
The differences among the regulated deficit irrigation treatments with respect to the panicle weight were found
to be significant as shown in Table 4. The highest panicle weight value was obtained from one hundred percent
(I100) irrigation treatment, followed by seventy five percent (I75) irrigation treatment and fifty percent (I50)
irrigation treatment. The lowest mean value was recorded at twenty five percent (I25) irrigation treatments as
shown in Table 4. The result revealed that, the one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) irrigation
treatments were significant not different, but the fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatment was significantly different
as compared to the other two treatments. Table 4 indicates that statistically no different between the two types of
soil. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on harvest index (HI) showed significant difference among the
treatments as shown in Table 4.The hundred percent regulated deficit irrigation(I100) and seventy five percent
(I75)regulated deficit irrigation treatments were found to have higher harvest index compared to the fifty
percent(I50) regulated deficit irrigation and twenty five percent(I25) regulated deficit irrigation treatments that
decreased markedly with increasing water deficit and this translates to higher sorghum efficiency in converting
biomass into grain yield under deficit irrigation situations. The result is supported by Liu et al. (2006) and
Zhang et al. (2004). Results also indicated significant different between the soil types.
The results were in Table 5 shows that, the numbers of panicles were influenced by regulated deficit irrigation
treatments. There was no difference in the means among I100percent deficit irrigation treatment, I75percent deficit
irrigation treatment and I50percent deficit irrigation treatment. However, the number of panicle of the twenty five
percent (I25) deficit irrigation treatment was significantly different from the other three regulated deficit irrigation
treatments (I100, I75, I50) as shown in Table 5.
The weight of 1000grains represents the magnitude of grain development that relates to the final yield. The
effect of regulated deficit irrigation on the one thousand grain weight of sorghum studied indicated that, there
was a significant difference among the treatments as shown in Table 5. The 1000grain weight of regulated deficit
irrigation indicated in Table 5 showed that, the one hundred percent (I100) regulated deficit irrigation and seventy
five percent (I75) regulated deficit irrigation treatments were not significantly different. However, there was a
significant difference between the fifty percent (I50) regulated deficit irrigation treatment and twenty five percent
regulated deficit irrigation treatment from the other two treatments (I100 and I75)as showed in Table 5. No
significant different between the Rhu Tapai Soil Series and Rengam Soil Series as perusal at the Table 5 have
indicated.
Table 4b shows the result of crop water use efficiency for sorghum under regulated deficit irrigation treatments.
The results revealed that, the crop water use efficiency of sorghum were statistically significant. However,
perusal of the result (Table 5) shows that one hundred percent(I100) regulated deficit irrigation treatment had the
highest crop water use efficiency value of 1.5kg/m3 compared to 1.3Kg/m3, 1.05Kg/m3 and nil for seventy five
percent(I75),fifty percent (I50) and twenty five percent (I25) regulated deficit irrigation treatments respectively.

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Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.17, 2013

www.iiste.org

The results are at tandem with the findings of the Tolk and Howell (2003) and Farre and Faci (2006). The result
in Table 5 revealed that, the crop water use efficiency was significantly different among the treatments. There
was no significant different between the two soil types as revealed by the result shown on Table 5.
3.1 Economic Performance and Profitability Measures.
Table 6 reports the average values of total revenue, total expenditures, and variable and fixed costs expenditures
of sorghum production under regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) .The findings revealed that RDI is profitable
under the different regulated deficit irrigation regimes. However, one hundred percent (I100) regulated deficit
irrigation have the highest net and gross profits while fifty percent (I50) regulated deficit irrigation treatments has
the lowest. This could be due to efficient water supply to I100, which resulted to higher yield and subsequently
high profit. The value of BCR, which measures the profit per unit dollar invested, shows a remarkable
performance for all the different regulated deficit irrigation regimes. According to the findings of the study,
sorghums farmers can generate $2.1, $1.8, and $1.5 for every $1 dollar invested in the I100, I75 and I50
respectively.
4. Conclusion
The study evaluated the effects of deficit irrigation on growth and yield of sorghum on two types of soil revealed
the followings: The growth parameters, plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index, root dry matter and tillers
under regulated deficit irrigation treatments were significantly different while I100 and I75 percent regulated
deficit irrigation treatments were similar. On the other hand, the stem girth showed significant difference in all
treatments. The yield and yield components under the regulated deficit irrigation treatments as Indicated
significant values in comparison within the treatments. In all the parameters the I100 and I75 percent regulated
deficit irrigation treatments were numerically similar while there was no yield recorded at I25 percent regulated
deficit irrigation treatment.
The crop water use efficiency was significantly affected by the regulated deficit irrigation treatments. I100 percent
regulated deficit irrigation treatment recorded the highest values of water efficiency (1.50417Kg/m3) while the
lowest was 1.04721Kg/m3 at I50 percent regulated deficit irrigation treatment. The findings revealed that RDI is
profitable under the different regulated deficit irrigation treatments. However, one hundred percent (I100)
regulated deficit irrigation have the highest net and gross profits while fifty percent (I50) regulated deficit
irrigation treatments has the lowest
Yield of sorghum grains grown on Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series have revealed that, there were significant
different between the two types of soil used in relation to the irrigation water applied. The result indicated that,
numerically Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series recorded 5216.9 and 5003.1Kg/ha under the Regulated Deficit
Irrigation respectively. These indicated that when Rhu Tapai Soil Series is correctly treated with sufficient
organic matter and appropriate agronomic practices applied can produce competitive yield in comparison with
Rengam Soil Series under sorghum production.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Terengganu for giving permission to publish this paper.
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Plain and Oregon, USA. In: Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvement (Kijne,
J.W., Barker, R., and Molden, D. eds). CABI Publishing, 332p
Table 1: Physio-chemical properties of Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series.
Soil properties
Particle size distribution
Silt (%)
Sand (%)
Clay (%)
Texture
Organic matter (%)
pH (1:1 suspension)
Bulk Density (g/cm-3)
CEC (cmol (+) kg-1 soil

Rhu Tapai

Rengam

2.52
67.35
30.13
Sandy
0.99
4.6
1.27
9.53

3.07
30.28
66.65
Clay
1.62
4.8
1.31
7.14

Total nitrogen (%)
Exchangeable bases (cmol (+) kg-1 soil
Ca
Mg
K

0.09

0.15

0.20
0.02
0.01

0.17
0.10
0.10

% of water base on weight
0.33 bar
1.0 bar

6.5
4.0

23.5
30.5

Table 2: Effects of regulated deficit irrigation on growth parameters of sorghum.
Treatment
Plant height (cm)
Number of leaves/plant
Leaf area index
Irrigation
Fls
Js
Fs
Ds
I100
222.41a
16.00a
0.12a
2.76a
6.10a
9.53a
I75
207.94a
16.00a
0.14a
2.61a
5.22a
7.37b
b
b
a
b
b
I50
178.05
14.00
0.15
2.15
4.27
5.58b
b
c
a
c
c
I25
152.03
12.00
0.12
1.18
2.20
2.48c
a
a
a
a
a
Rhu Tapai Soil
194.47
15.00
0.20
2.72
4.50
6.42a
a
a
b
b
a
Rengam Soil
185.75
14.00
0.06
1.64
3.90
6.05
Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT
Fls = Five leaf stage, Js = Jointed stage, Fs = Flowering stage, Ds = Dough stage.
Table 3: Effects of regulated deficit irrigation on growth parameters of sorghum.
Treatment
Root dry matter (g)
Girth (cm)
Tillers
Irrigation
I100
675.45a
4.78a
4.00a
a
b
I75
659.71
4.39
4.00a
b
c
I50
491.66
3.78
3.00ab
c
d
I25
185.64
3.36
2.00c
a
a
Rhu Tapai Soil
540.01
4.14
4.00a
a
b
Rengam Soil
466.22
4.01
2.00b
Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT

7
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.17, 2013

www.iiste.org

Table 4: Effects of Regulated deficit irrigation on sorghum yield and yield components.
Treatment
Yield (Kg/ha) Panicle length (cm)
Panicle weight (g)
Harvest index (Kg/m3)
Irrigation
I100
7887.10a
48.88a
167.27a
54.46a
a
a
a
I75
7389. 40
47.00
152.04
53.44a
b
b
b
I50
5563.30
40.00
124.81
41.46b
c
c
c
00.00
00.00
00.00
00.00c
I25
a
a
a
Rhu Tapai Soil
5216.90
34.75
112.46
40.86a
a
a
a
Rengam Soil
5003.10
33.19
106.60
33.82b
Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT,
Table 5: Effects of Regulated deficit irrigation on sorghum yield and yield components.
Treatment
Number of panicles
1000 Grain weight (g)
Crop Water use efficiency (Kg/ha)
Irrigation
I100
5.00a
38.31a
1.50417a
a
a
I75
5.00
38.31
1.29745b
b
b
I50
3.00
28.61
1.04771c
c
c
I25
0.00
00.00
0.00000d
a
a
Rhu Tapai Soil
3.00
26.43
0.98246a
a
a
Rengam Soil
3.00
25.97
0.94220a
Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT
Table 6: Costs and Benefits Analysis
I100
Outputs
Yields (Kg)
Unit price(100kg)
Total revenue
Variable inputs Costs
Seed
Water used
Fertilizer
Land hiring/renting
Labor costs:
Land preparation
Weeding
Fertilizer application
Water application
Harvesting
Total variable costs
Fixed inputs costs
Depreciation costs
Total fixed costs
Total costs
Net profit
Gross profit
Source; Field experiment.
RDI- Regulated deficit irrigation

Items
I75

I50

7779.1
0.31
2411.51

6889.4
0.31
2135.71

5563.3
0.31
1724.6

0.75
7.55
15.72
22.1

0.75
7.55
15.72
22.1

0.75
7.55
15.72
22.1

3.14
1.26
0.63
8.81
3.14
63.1

3.14
1.26
0.63
8.81
3.14
63.1

3.14
1.26
0.63
8.81
3.14
63.1

1100
1100
1163.1
1248.42
2348.42

1100
1100
1163.1
972.61
2072.61

1100
1100
1163.1
561.5
1661.5

8
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Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access
Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is
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Effect of regulated deficit irrigation on growth and yield of sorghum

  • 1. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org Effect of Regulated Deficit Irrigation on Growth and Yield of Sorghum Adzemi Mat Arshad*, Ibrahim W and Wan Zaliha W S Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia. *Email address:adzemi@umt.edu.my Abstract The effects of regulated deficit irrigation technique on growth and yield of sorghum was examined in a greenhouse at the Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science Research Farm, University Malaysia Terengganu. The experiments regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) consisted of a factorial combination of irrigation regimes and soil types laid in a randomised complete block design with eight treatments for each experiment which resulted into a total of sixteen treatments. Irrigation regimes were at four levels namely: I100, I75, I50 and I25 and the soil types were at two levels namely: Rhu Tapai and Rengam soil series. The treatments were randomly assigned to experimental pots and replicated four times. A total of thirty two pots were used for the study. All agronomic practices starting from land preparation to harvesting were adhered to and growth parameters were recorded for both experiments. The result of the study shows that sorghum performance improved under regulated deficit irrigation techniques. The results further revealed that, irrigation regimes I100 and I75 performed better in terms of growth parameters, crop water use efficiency, economic performance and profitable measures under RDI and compared to I50 and I25 irrigation regimes. The study also revealed that there were interaction effects of deficit irrigation and the two types of soil on some of the parameters used for the study. The study, therefore, recommended the use of I75, for optimizing sorghum growth in this agro ecological zone. Keywords: Regulated deficit irrigation, Growth, Yield, Sorghum, Water use efficiency. 1. Introduction Sorghum (sorghum bicolour L. Moench) is the third important cereal crop grown in the United States and the fifth most important grain crop in the world after rice, maize and barley. In 2010, Nigeria was the world’s largest producer of grain sorghum followed by the United States and India.(FAO 2012).The world harvested 55.6 million tonnes of sorghum in 2010.The world average annual yield for the 2010 sorghum crop was 1.37 tonnes per hectare. It is one of the major sources of food for people in many developing countries (Doggett, 1988 and Rorhbach et al., 2002). Sorghum is an important world crop used for food (as grain and in sorghum syrup or sorghum molasses), fodder, the production of alcoholic beverages, as well as biofuels. It was originated in the region of the North-East Africa comprising Ethiopia, Sudan and East Africa (Doggett, 1988). The crop is well adapted to the range of environmental condition in semi-arid region of Africa with high variability (Doggett, 1988; Teshome et al. 1997). Water-saving irrigations are used to improve the water productivity (WP) in recent years. Regulated deficit irrigation is the water-saving irrigation method that cut down irrigation amounts of full irrigation to crops. The amounts of irrigation reduction is crop-dependent and generally accompanied by no or minor yield loss that increases the water productivity (Ahmadi et al., 2010b). Irrigated agriculture generates a major contribution to food security. The pressure on limited fresh water resources is on the increase. Irrigated agriculture is the largest water consuming sector and it faces competing demand from other sectors such as the industrial and domestic sector (Graham and Vance 2003). Irrigated agriculture uses more than 70% of the water withdrawn from the earth’s rivers in developing countries the proportion excess 80% (FAO, 2002). The possibility for further irrigation development to meet food requirement in the coming years is severely constraint by decreasing water resources. The agricultural sector faces the challenge to produce more food with less water (FAO, 2003). Owing to the wide scale expansion of irrigation farming water has become increasingly a scarce resource. Scarcity is further complicated when water supplies are uncertain. To sustain the growing world population, agricultural production will need to increase (Howell, 2001) yet the portion of fresh water currently available for agriculture 72% is decreasing (Cai et al. 2003). Hence, sustainable methods to increase crop water productivity are gaining in arid and semi-arid regions. Irrigated agriculture is the primary user of diverted water globally, reaching a proportion that exceeds 70-80% of the total in the arid and semi-arid zones. It is therefore not surprising that irrigated agriculture is perceived in those areas as the primary source of water especially in the emergence drought situations. 1
  • 2. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org Currently, irrigated agriculture is caught between two perceptions that are contradictory; some perceive that agriculture is highly inefficient by growing water guzzling crops (Postel et al, 1996) while others emphasise that irrigation is essential for the production of sufficient food in the future, given the anticipated increases in food demand due to world population growth and changes in diets (Dyson, 1999). Nevertheless, irrigated agriculture is still practiced in many areas in the world with complete disregard to basic principles of resources conservation and sustainability. Therefore irrigation water management in an era of water scarcity will have to be carried out most efficiently, aiming at saving water and at maximising the productivity. Deficit irrigation has widely been reported as a valuable strategy for dry regions (English, 1990; Fereres and Soriano, 2007) where water is the limiting factor in crop cultivation. The main objective of the study was to assess the effect of regulated deficit irrigation on the growth and yield of sorghum cultivars. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Experimental Site The study was conducted in a greenhouse at Faculty of Agrotechnology and Food Science Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, with Latitude and Longitude; 50.20’N 1030 5’E. The Altitude is about 32 m. The climate of the area is tropical rain-forest with a mean annual rainfall of 2911 mm (114.6 in).The average temperature in Terengganu is 26.70C (min 220C, max 320C),while the mean relative humidity for an average year is recorded as 71.7% and on a monthly basis it ranges from 68% in May and June to 79% in December. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) cultivar Samsorg-KSV8 from Nigeria was used in this research. The plants were planted on Rengam soil series and Rhu Tapai soil series (Table 1). Various treatments comprising of different regimes of irrigation namely: (i) 100% RDI (ii) 75% RDI (iii) 50% RDI and (iv) 25% RDI, and one type of cultivar: SAMSORG14KSV8 and two types of soil. All treatments were layout by following a randomized complete block design with four replications. A total of thirty two polythene bags were used. The total area of experimental field is 185.81m2 and four lateral line pipes, each dripper were attached with clipper for regulating the irrigation. Where connected to the pipe with stoppers attached at each joints of laterals connecting to main pipes. Emitters or drippers were attached according to plant spacing of 75 by 50cm. The gross depths for the deficit irrigation methods used in this study were calculated as follows: NWR Gross irrigation depth for de icit irrigation = Ef iciency of the system A total of irrigation events were calculated and carried out during the growing Period of the cultivars under study. An irrigation frequency were estimated and maintained during the irrigation throughout the growing period. The crop water use for the sorghum cultivars was determined by estimating the reference crop evapotranspiration from climatic data using the Hargreaves method (Hargreaves et al.2003). The method was adopted based on its simplicity, which requires measuring mean maximum and minimum air temperatures. The method is second to the FAO-56 Penman Monthieth method in terms of accuracy (Lopez-Urea et al., 2006). The actual evaporation which is synonymous to crop water use was estimated by multiplying reference evapotranspiration with appropriate value of crop coefficient (Doorenbos and Prutt, 1977). ETc = Kc x ETc Where; Kc = crop coefficient ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/day The sorghum cultivars SAMSORG 14-KSV8 developed by the Lake Chad Research Institute, Maiduguri, Borno State were used in this experiment. The plant spacing recommended for sorghum is 75 x 50cm was adopted and four seeds for hole was planted and later thinned to two plants per stand two weeks after germination. Weeding was carried out manually throughout the growing period to reduce competition for space, water, light and nutrients between crops. Data collection started after transplanting. Growth parameters were recorded during the crop growth and development. The leaf area indexes of each randomly selected plant were computed using the formulae described by Duchemin et al (2006). Measurements were made at regular intervals of three weeks. The leaf density was calculated by multiplying plant density (no of plants) with numbers of leaves per plant. Hence the leaf area was calculated by multiplying leaf length with leaf width and the leaf shape correction factor where 0.75 is the leaf shape correction factor. However, leaf area index was finally determined by multiplying leaf density with leaf area. Harvest indexes were determined using the procedures described by Huhn (1990). The procedure used for the determination of the harvest indexes was by dividing grain yield with biological yield and multiplying the output by one hundred. The crop water use efficiencies for the cultivar studied was determined using the methods described by Kumar (2004) and Michael (2008). Yield Crop water use ef iciency = Evapotranspiration 2
  • 3. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org All data collected were subjected to statistical analysis of variance using the f-test with the aids of Statistical Analysis System (SAS 9.2) software. 3. Results and Discussion Table 2 shows the result of the plant height as affected by regulated deficit irrigation treatments. Data on plant height were recorded on weekly basis after sowing. The result for the treatments indicates that, plant height increased with crop growth and reached a maximum stage at the grain filling stage. Based on the findings of this research, plant heights were affected by regulated deficit irrigation treatments significantly. The result also shows that one hundred percent full irrigation (I100) produced taller plants compared to treatments seventy five percent regulated deficit irrigation (I75), fifty percent regulated deficit irrigation (I50) and twenty five percent regulated deficit irrigation (I25) Table 2 Treatment I100 and I75 are not significantly different from each other but they are significantly different from treatments I50 and I25. Differences in plant height could be explained by decrease in formation of node on the main stem due to water deficit throughout the growth period. The result is in agreement the finding of Adamtey (2010). The result showed no significant difference between the soil types (Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series) with respect to plant height. These could be due to the fact that the experiment was carried out in a climate-controlled greenhouse. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation treatments were significant at P<0.05 on the number of leaves of sorghum as shown in Table 2. The data revealed that, in relation to soil types no significant difference was observed. Regulated deficit irrigation effect at one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) of the crop water requirement were found to have a significant effect on the number of leaves, at 0,05% level of significant. The data revealed that, in relation to soil types no significant difference was observed. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on the number of leaves at one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) of crop water requirement were not significantly different. However, the fifty percent (I50) and twenty five percent treatments (I25) were significantly different from the other two treatments as shown in Table 2 and also no significant different between Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series. Table 2 presents the interaction effects of regulated deficit irrigation treatments and soils on leaf area index at five leaf stage, that there was no significant difference among the treatments (P<.0.05) in terms of leaf area index at five leaves stage which revealed that in both soils, individual treatment within Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series statistically similar. This could be attributed to smaller size and less number of leaves at those particular growth stages. Furthermore, in comparison between Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series treatments were statistically not similar. The Rhu Tapai Soil Series had higher numerical values of regulated deficit irrigation treatments than Rengam Soil Series as showed in Table 2. The data in Tables 2 revealed that, for all treatments, the leaf area index (LAI) increased with crop development and attained a maximum value at dough stage. Leaf area index was essentially low for the all treatments at five leaves stage (FLS) and jointed stage (JS).This is in agreement with the findings of Howell et al: (2001). However, they were statistically different at the jointed stage as shown in Table 2. The result indicated that, there was significant different at the Five Leaf and Jointed Stages in comparison between the Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series, hence these could be due to early stages of the leaf development. The I100 and I75 treatments as indicated in Table 2 revealed that were statistically similar in both Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series. These might be due to improvement in the colloidal activity and efficient application of irrigation. The I100 and I75 treatments were statistically not different, while the I50 and I25 treatments were statistically also not different but they were at par statistically compared with the other two treatments within the Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series respectively at jointed stage as revealed in Table 2. At the flowering stage as shown in table 4.3iii there was significant different among the applied regulated deficit irrigation, in Table 4.3iii as also indicated that the I100 and I75 irrigation treatments were not significantly different at the flowering stage, I50 and I25 irrigation treatments were statistically different. Likewise, they were at par compared with the other two irrigation treatments (I100 and I50). The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on leaf area index as shown in Table 2 revealed that there was significant difference at the dough stage. The result also showed applying one hundred percent (I100) of the crop water requirement produced high ratio of leaf area index compared to seventy five percent (I75), fifty percent (I50) and twenty five percent (I25) of the crop water requirement. Treatments I75 and I50 are not significantly different from each other but they are significantly different from I25 (Table 2) The result on root dry matter revealed that, root dry matter was influenced by regulated deficit irrigation treatments as shown in Table 3 which indicated significant difference among the treatments at 5% level of significance. Treatment I100 produced the highest root dry matter. This was followed closely by treatment I75. The result (Table 3) further revealed that, treatment I50 and I25 recorded low root dry matter. The result is at tandem with the findings of Shape and Davies (1979). No significant difference was observed between the soil types. The result revealed interaction effects of regulated deficit irrigation treatments and soils on stem girth. 3
  • 4. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org Significant difference had occurred within the irrigation treatments of both Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series respectively as shown in Table 3. I100 produced thicker stem girth compared I75 treatment. The result in Table 3 also revealed that, the I50 and I25 produced the smaller and smallest stem girths respectively. The data in Table 3 indicated interaction effect of irrigation and soils on stem girth. The Table 3 indicated that, there were interaction effects of regulated deficit irrigation and soils on tillers. The mean values as indicated in Table 3 also showed that, there was no significant difference among the I100 percent irrigation treatment, I75 irrigation treatment and I50 irrigation treatment in terms of tillering but they were found to be statistically different with I25 irrigation treatment. The result revealed that there was no statistical different within the both soil types in relation to the irrigation applied. The differences between the regulated deficit irrigation treatments I100, I75, I50, and I25 with respect to the grain yield were found significant as shown in Table 4. The highest grain yield was from the one hundred percent I100 irrigation treatment followed by the fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatment. The yields were not significantly different between the one hundred (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) irrigation treatments. The lowest yield was obtained from I25percent irrigation treatment. Nevertheless, apart from genetic influenced for enhancing plant’s growth hormones production, deficit irrigation strategies also increases growth hormones levels in the plants (Dodd, 2009, Liu et al., 2006b) and attribute to better stomatal control over plant water use (Dodd, 2005). Table 4 also showed that Rhu Tapai Soil Series and Rengam Soil Series are not significantly different. Table 4 revealed that differences among the regulated deficit irrigation treatments applied with respect to panicle length were found to be significant. Means of the panicle lengths were 48.87cm, 47.0cm and 40.0cm at one hundred (I100), seventy five percent (I75) and fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatments respectively. The panicle lengths were statistically the same at one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) irrigation treatments. However, they were found to be significant different from the panicle length at fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatment (Table 4). The result also revealed that, there was no panicle length at twenty five percent (I25) irrigation treatment, which was due to severe water deficit. Statistically no significant different at panicle length in terms of the two types of soil used. The differences among the regulated deficit irrigation treatments with respect to the panicle weight were found to be significant as shown in Table 4. The highest panicle weight value was obtained from one hundred percent (I100) irrigation treatment, followed by seventy five percent (I75) irrigation treatment and fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatment. The lowest mean value was recorded at twenty five percent (I25) irrigation treatments as shown in Table 4. The result revealed that, the one hundred percent (I100) and seventy five percent (I75) irrigation treatments were significant not different, but the fifty percent (I50) irrigation treatment was significantly different as compared to the other two treatments. Table 4 indicates that statistically no different between the two types of soil. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on harvest index (HI) showed significant difference among the treatments as shown in Table 4.The hundred percent regulated deficit irrigation(I100) and seventy five percent (I75)regulated deficit irrigation treatments were found to have higher harvest index compared to the fifty percent(I50) regulated deficit irrigation and twenty five percent(I25) regulated deficit irrigation treatments that decreased markedly with increasing water deficit and this translates to higher sorghum efficiency in converting biomass into grain yield under deficit irrigation situations. The result is supported by Liu et al. (2006) and Zhang et al. (2004). Results also indicated significant different between the soil types. The results were in Table 5 shows that, the numbers of panicles were influenced by regulated deficit irrigation treatments. There was no difference in the means among I100percent deficit irrigation treatment, I75percent deficit irrigation treatment and I50percent deficit irrigation treatment. However, the number of panicle of the twenty five percent (I25) deficit irrigation treatment was significantly different from the other three regulated deficit irrigation treatments (I100, I75, I50) as shown in Table 5. The weight of 1000grains represents the magnitude of grain development that relates to the final yield. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on the one thousand grain weight of sorghum studied indicated that, there was a significant difference among the treatments as shown in Table 5. The 1000grain weight of regulated deficit irrigation indicated in Table 5 showed that, the one hundred percent (I100) regulated deficit irrigation and seventy five percent (I75) regulated deficit irrigation treatments were not significantly different. However, there was a significant difference between the fifty percent (I50) regulated deficit irrigation treatment and twenty five percent regulated deficit irrigation treatment from the other two treatments (I100 and I75)as showed in Table 5. No significant different between the Rhu Tapai Soil Series and Rengam Soil Series as perusal at the Table 5 have indicated. Table 4b shows the result of crop water use efficiency for sorghum under regulated deficit irrigation treatments. The results revealed that, the crop water use efficiency of sorghum were statistically significant. However, perusal of the result (Table 5) shows that one hundred percent(I100) regulated deficit irrigation treatment had the highest crop water use efficiency value of 1.5kg/m3 compared to 1.3Kg/m3, 1.05Kg/m3 and nil for seventy five percent(I75),fifty percent (I50) and twenty five percent (I25) regulated deficit irrigation treatments respectively. 4
  • 5. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org The results are at tandem with the findings of the Tolk and Howell (2003) and Farre and Faci (2006). The result in Table 5 revealed that, the crop water use efficiency was significantly different among the treatments. There was no significant different between the two soil types as revealed by the result shown on Table 5. 3.1 Economic Performance and Profitability Measures. Table 6 reports the average values of total revenue, total expenditures, and variable and fixed costs expenditures of sorghum production under regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) .The findings revealed that RDI is profitable under the different regulated deficit irrigation regimes. However, one hundred percent (I100) regulated deficit irrigation have the highest net and gross profits while fifty percent (I50) regulated deficit irrigation treatments has the lowest. This could be due to efficient water supply to I100, which resulted to higher yield and subsequently high profit. The value of BCR, which measures the profit per unit dollar invested, shows a remarkable performance for all the different regulated deficit irrigation regimes. According to the findings of the study, sorghums farmers can generate $2.1, $1.8, and $1.5 for every $1 dollar invested in the I100, I75 and I50 respectively. 4. Conclusion The study evaluated the effects of deficit irrigation on growth and yield of sorghum on two types of soil revealed the followings: The growth parameters, plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index, root dry matter and tillers under regulated deficit irrigation treatments were significantly different while I100 and I75 percent regulated deficit irrigation treatments were similar. On the other hand, the stem girth showed significant difference in all treatments. The yield and yield components under the regulated deficit irrigation treatments as Indicated significant values in comparison within the treatments. In all the parameters the I100 and I75 percent regulated deficit irrigation treatments were numerically similar while there was no yield recorded at I25 percent regulated deficit irrigation treatment. The crop water use efficiency was significantly affected by the regulated deficit irrigation treatments. I100 percent regulated deficit irrigation treatment recorded the highest values of water efficiency (1.50417Kg/m3) while the lowest was 1.04721Kg/m3 at I50 percent regulated deficit irrigation treatment. The findings revealed that RDI is profitable under the different regulated deficit irrigation treatments. However, one hundred percent (I100) regulated deficit irrigation have the highest net and gross profits while fifty percent (I50) regulated deficit irrigation treatments has the lowest Yield of sorghum grains grown on Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series have revealed that, there were significant different between the two types of soil used in relation to the irrigation water applied. The result indicated that, numerically Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series recorded 5216.9 and 5003.1Kg/ha under the Regulated Deficit Irrigation respectively. These indicated that when Rhu Tapai Soil Series is correctly treated with sufficient organic matter and appropriate agronomic practices applied can produce competitive yield in comparison with Rengam Soil Series under sorghum production. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Terengganu for giving permission to publish this paper. References Adamtey, N. (2010). Effect of N-enriched co-compost on transpiration efficiency and wateruse efficiency of maize (Zea mays L.) under controlled irrigation. Agric. Water Management 97:1010-1016 Ahmadi, S.H., Andersen, M.N., Plauborg, F., Poulsen, R.T., Jensen, C.R., Sepaskhah, A.R., Hansen, S. (2010a) . Effects of irrigation strategies and soils on field grown potatoes: Gas exchange and xylem. Agri. Water Management 97: 1486-1494. Ahmadi, S.H., Andersen, M.N., Plauborg, F., Poulsen, R.T., Jensen, C.R., Sepaskhah, A.R., Hansen, S. (2010b). Effects of irrigation strategies and soils on field grown potatoes: Yield and water productivity. Agri. Water Management. 98: 1223-1232. Cai, X. Rosegrant, M. and Ringler, C. (2003). Physical and economic efficiency of water use in the river basin: Implications for water management. Water Resources Res. 39(1): 1013. Dodd, C. (2005). Root-to-shoot signalling: assessing the roles of ‘UP’ in the up and down world of long-distance signalling in Plant. Plant and Soil 274, 251-270. Dodd, I.C. (2009). Rhizosphere manipulations to maximize ‘crop per drop’ during deficit irrigation. Jour. of Experimental Botany 60: 2454-2459. Doggett, H. (1988). Sorghum.Tropical Agriculture Series, 2nd ed. CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Doorenbos, J. and Prutt, W.O. (1977). Crop water requirement. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24, Rome. 144p. 5
  • 6. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org Duchemin, B., Hadria, R., Erraki, S., Boulet, G., Maisongrande,P., Chehbouni, A., Escadafal R., Ezzahar, J., Hoedjes, J. C.B., Kharrou, M. H., Khabba, S., Mougenot, B., Olio So, A., Rodriguez, J. C., and Simonneaux, V. (2006). Monitoring wheat phenolog in Central Morocco: On the use of relationships between evapotranspiration, crops coefficients, leaf area index and remotely-sensed vegetation indices, Agric. Water Management 79:1–27, Dyson, J. (1999). The Dyson Effect: Carbon “Off” Forestry and the privatization of the Atmosphere. Pub, The corner House, Sturminster Newton Dorset DT10 IYJ, UK. English M. (1990). Deficit irrigation, Analytical framework. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 116: 399-412. English, M. J., Musick, J. T., and Murty, V. V. N. (1990). Deficit irrigation. Pp. 631-663. In G.J. Hoffman, T.A. Howell and K.H. Solomon (Eds) Management of farm irrigation systems. ASAEMono., Am. Soc.Agric.and Biol. Engr., St. Josept, M L. FAO (2002). Food and Agricultural Organization Statistical data base. Rome, Italy FAO (2003). Food and Agricultural Organization Statistical data base. Rome, Italy FAO (2010). Food and Agricultural Organization Statistical data base. Rome, Italy FAO (2012). Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical data base. Rome, Italy. Farie, I. and Faci, J.M. (2006). Comparative response of maize (Zea mays L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) to deficit irrigation in a Mediterranean environment. Agric. Water Management. 83; 135-143. Fereres, E. and Soriano, M.A (2007). Deficit irrigation for reducing agricultural water use. Jour. of Experimental Botany. 58: 147-159. Graham, P.H. and Vance, C.P. (2003). Legumes importance and constraints to greater use update on legume utilization. Plant Physiol. 131. Hargreaves, G.H., and Alten, R. G. (2003). History and evaluation of Hargreaves evapotranspiration equation. Journ. Irrig. Drain. Eng. ASCE 129(1), 53-63. Howell, T.A. (2001). Enhancing water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture. Agronomy Journal 93, 281-289. Hoppe, R. and Banker, D. (2010). Structure and finances of U.S. Farms; Famiy farm report. USDA, Economic Research Services. Economic Information Bulletin, 66, Washington. DC, USA. Hsiao T.C, Xu L.K. (2000). Sensitivity of growth roots versus leaves to water stress; biophysical analysis and relation to water transport. Journ. of Experimental Botany 51, 1595-1616. Huhn. S. (1990). On the variability of harvest indices. Jour. Agron Crop Sci 164: 297-281. Kang, S. and Zhang, J. 2004. Controlled alternate root zone Irrigation. It’s Physiological Consequences Impact on Water use efficiency. Journ. of Experimental Botany 55 (407): 2437-2446. Kumar, D.M. (2004). Irrigation Water Management: Principles and Practice. Prentice-hall of India Pvt Ltd., Pp500. Liu, F., Shahnazari, A. Andersen, M.N., Jacobsen, S.E., Jensen, C.R. (2006b). Effects of deficit irrigation (DI) and partial root drying (PRD) on gas exchange, biomass partitioning, and water use efficiency in potato. Scientia Horticulturae 109: 113-117. Lopez-Urea, R., Martin, F., Fabeiro, C. and Moratalla, A. (2006). Testing evapotranspiration equations using lysimeter observations in a Semi arid climate. Agricultural Water Management Journal 85: 15-26. Michael, A. M. (2008). Irrigation Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition Vikas Publishing House. New Delhi, India. 80p. Postel, S.L Daily, G.C. Ehrlich, P.R. (1996). Human appropriation of renewable Freshwater Science 271: 202-208 Rorhbach, D.D., Mtenga, K., Kiriwaggulu, J.A.B., Monyo, E. S., Mwaisela, T. and Saadan, H.M. (2002). Comparative study of three community seed supply strategies in Tanzania. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Rosegrant, O. A., Cai, X. and Cline, S. A. (2002). World Water and Food to 2005 dealing with Scarcity. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D. C,Lloyd SAS Institute. (1999). SAS user’s guide: Statistics. SAS Inst., Cary, N C. Sharp, R.E, Davies, W.J. (1979). Solute regulation and growth by roots and shoots in water-stressed maize plants. Planta 147: 43-49. Teshome, A., Baum, B.R., Fahrig, L., Torrance, J.K., Arnason, T.J .and Lambert, J.D. (1997). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L) Moench) Landrace variation and classification in North Shewa and South Welo, Ethiopia. Eurphytica 97: 255-263. Tolk, J.A., and Howell, T. A. (2003). Water use efficiencies of grain sorghum grown in three USA southern Great Plains soils. Agric. Water Management 59; 97-111. U.S.Grains Council, Sorghum Handbook, 2009. Zhang, H. (2003). Improving water productivity through deficit irrigation: examples from Syria, the North China 6
  • 7. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org Plain and Oregon, USA. In: Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvement (Kijne, J.W., Barker, R., and Molden, D. eds). CABI Publishing, 332p Table 1: Physio-chemical properties of Rhu Tapai and Rengam Soil Series. Soil properties Particle size distribution Silt (%) Sand (%) Clay (%) Texture Organic matter (%) pH (1:1 suspension) Bulk Density (g/cm-3) CEC (cmol (+) kg-1 soil Rhu Tapai Rengam 2.52 67.35 30.13 Sandy 0.99 4.6 1.27 9.53 3.07 30.28 66.65 Clay 1.62 4.8 1.31 7.14 Total nitrogen (%) Exchangeable bases (cmol (+) kg-1 soil Ca Mg K 0.09 0.15 0.20 0.02 0.01 0.17 0.10 0.10 % of water base on weight 0.33 bar 1.0 bar 6.5 4.0 23.5 30.5 Table 2: Effects of regulated deficit irrigation on growth parameters of sorghum. Treatment Plant height (cm) Number of leaves/plant Leaf area index Irrigation Fls Js Fs Ds I100 222.41a 16.00a 0.12a 2.76a 6.10a 9.53a I75 207.94a 16.00a 0.14a 2.61a 5.22a 7.37b b b a b b I50 178.05 14.00 0.15 2.15 4.27 5.58b b c a c c I25 152.03 12.00 0.12 1.18 2.20 2.48c a a a a a Rhu Tapai Soil 194.47 15.00 0.20 2.72 4.50 6.42a a a b b a Rengam Soil 185.75 14.00 0.06 1.64 3.90 6.05 Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT Fls = Five leaf stage, Js = Jointed stage, Fs = Flowering stage, Ds = Dough stage. Table 3: Effects of regulated deficit irrigation on growth parameters of sorghum. Treatment Root dry matter (g) Girth (cm) Tillers Irrigation I100 675.45a 4.78a 4.00a a b I75 659.71 4.39 4.00a b c I50 491.66 3.78 3.00ab c d I25 185.64 3.36 2.00c a a Rhu Tapai Soil 540.01 4.14 4.00a a b Rengam Soil 466.22 4.01 2.00b Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT 7
  • 8. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.17, 2013 www.iiste.org Table 4: Effects of Regulated deficit irrigation on sorghum yield and yield components. Treatment Yield (Kg/ha) Panicle length (cm) Panicle weight (g) Harvest index (Kg/m3) Irrigation I100 7887.10a 48.88a 167.27a 54.46a a a a I75 7389. 40 47.00 152.04 53.44a b b b I50 5563.30 40.00 124.81 41.46b c c c 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00c I25 a a a Rhu Tapai Soil 5216.90 34.75 112.46 40.86a a a a Rengam Soil 5003.10 33.19 106.60 33.82b Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT, Table 5: Effects of Regulated deficit irrigation on sorghum yield and yield components. Treatment Number of panicles 1000 Grain weight (g) Crop Water use efficiency (Kg/ha) Irrigation I100 5.00a 38.31a 1.50417a a a I75 5.00 38.31 1.29745b b b I50 3.00 28.61 1.04771c c c I25 0.00 00.00 0.00000d a a Rhu Tapai Soil 3.00 26.43 0.98246a a a Rengam Soil 3.00 25.97 0.94220a Means followed by the same letter within column are not significantly difference at P < 0.05 using DNMRT Table 6: Costs and Benefits Analysis I100 Outputs Yields (Kg) Unit price(100kg) Total revenue Variable inputs Costs Seed Water used Fertilizer Land hiring/renting Labor costs: Land preparation Weeding Fertilizer application Water application Harvesting Total variable costs Fixed inputs costs Depreciation costs Total fixed costs Total costs Net profit Gross profit Source; Field experiment. RDI- Regulated deficit irrigation Items I75 I50 7779.1 0.31 2411.51 6889.4 0.31 2135.71 5563.3 0.31 1724.6 0.75 7.55 15.72 22.1 0.75 7.55 15.72 22.1 0.75 7.55 15.72 22.1 3.14 1.26 0.63 8.81 3.14 63.1 3.14 1.26 0.63 8.81 3.14 63.1 3.14 1.26 0.63 8.81 3.14 63.1 1100 1100 1163.1 1248.42 2348.42 1100 1100 1163.1 972.61 2072.61 1100 1100 1163.1 561.5 1661.5 8
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