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ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online)
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Borrowings in Texts: A Case of Tanzanian Newspapers
Sarah Marjie-Okyere
Department of Modern Languages
University Of Ghana, Legon
*Email: yomarjie@yahoo.com
Abstract
We have observed that not only does borrowing feature in aural data; it is also prominent in written texts,
specifically in newspapers. This paper examines the use of borrowed words found in issues of Tanzanian
newspapers from 2007 to 2009. The study also sought views from newspaper writers through a qualitative and
well structured questionnaire on reasons why they would prefer using borrowed English words to Kiswahili
native words. The analysis of the questionnaire shows that sometimes Kiswahili words were either too lengthy or
writers use English items as means of prestige, sophistication or even sometimes for stylistic purposes, among
others. We also noted that although writers treat English items as Kiswahili, the Kiswahili class systems are not
affected. Traces of evidences of spelling variations of these English borrowed items into Kiswahili confirm
assertions made by other scholars in this field that most borrowed items are not standardized.
Keywords: loanwords, nativization, newspapers, borrowing.
1. Introduction
Kiswahili has incorporated a great deal of borrowed items into its vocabulary. These English items are not found
only in spoken Kiswahili, they are also present in the print media and other written texts. Much work has been
done on borrowing in the area of spoken data such as Gower (1952), Polome (1967), Mwita (2009) etc. Some
research works on written data can also be found in Kachru (1989), Petzell (2005), Dzahene-Quarshie (2010).
The paper concentrates on how foreign words are integrated into Kiswahili by choice of script and also looks at
some of the borrowing processes newspaper writers adopt (phonologically or morphologically) when
incorporating English items in news articles in newspapers. The paper will also explore writing variations in the
written texts.
1.1 The Swahili Language
African languages are classified under four categories; namely: Khoisan, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Niger –
Congo/ Kordofanian. Swahili belongs to the Niger- Congo group of languages specifically the Sabaki subgroup
of Northeastern Coast Bantu languages (Batibo, 2005). Kiswahili is derived from an Arabic word which means
port or coastal town. It is spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, Mozambique, Somalia, Uganda, DR Congo and
Rwanda and has about 50 million speakers. Kiswahili is dialectically diverse, but Kiswahili ‘Kisanifu’ was
standardized by the Inter-Territorial Kiswahili Language Committee in 1930 based on the coastal dialect of
Zanzibar, Kiunguja. It is important to note that the orthography of Kiswahili was first in Arabic script, but the
Roman script has been used for the writing of Kiswahili from the mid nineteenth century. The Roman-based
orthography was standardardized in 1930 (Chimerah, 1998). Kiswahili is the national and official language of
Tanzania. It is also the 5th
working language of the AU, the others are English, French, Arabic and Portuguese,
hence Kiswahili is the only African Language which is a working language in the AU.
Like other Bantu languages, Kiswahili has a rich noun class system. Traditionally, there are eighteen (18) noun
classes where each class has its particular class prefix attached to the noun stem. There are 10 classes of singular
nouns with their plural counterparts. Again, there is a class for abstract nouns, a class for verbal infinitives used
as nouns, and three locative classes (Ashton, 1944; Mohammed, 2001; Petzell, 2005& Contini-Morava, 2008).
These classes are divided into semantic characteristics such as classes for human beings, animals, plants,
artifacts, abstract concepts and location determined by nominal prefixes. With respect to verbs in Kiswahili, they
comprise roots and prefixes. Grammatically, these affixes can be added to the roots in order to express persons,
tenses, and subordinate clauses. Kiswahili adverbial stems also take affixes. There exists a category of adverbs
that uses the vi-prefix and another that uses the ki-prefix and yet a third that precedes the words by kwa (Marjie
2010).
1.2 Data and methodology
The data consist of three Kiswahili-based newspapers issued between 2007 and 2009 in Tanzania. These
newspapers are Mwananchi, Uhuru, Mwana Halisi. They contain news items related to politics, economics,
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social life, entertainment and other issues relating to activities of everyday life of the people living in the under-
mentioned country. From each section, 24 newspapers were randomly selected and evenly distributed over the
year to avoid biasness. In all about one hundred and forty four (144) newspapers were used. After a page by page
review was done, about 416 words were gathered from the newspapers. The research grouped the borrowed
items into parts of speech. The study also considered the number of times the words occurred to know the
category of words that are mostly borrowed into the language. Since variation is a feature of this paper,
variations in spellings were also looked at to check on the differences and similarities in the documents regarding
newspaper publications. Newspaper writers and editors were interviewed on the motivations for the use of
loanwords in the newspapers through questionnaires. This paper probes the nature and level of the use of English
items in Kiswahili in Tanzanian newspapers using Angermeryer’s (2005) analysis of script choice and Winford
(2003)’s theory of borrowing processes.
2. What is borrowing?
Every language in this world has its own set of vocabulary. However, sometimes words from one language find
their ways into the vocabulary of another language because these languages may have been in contact in one way
or the other. When two or more languages come into contact with one another, borrowing may take place.
Crystal (1985:36) defines borrowing as “linguistics forms being taken over by one language or dialect from
another….” Less commonly, sounds and other grammatical structures may be borrowed. Bloomfield (1933)
explains that borrowing is a natural phenomenon in every language which helps to expand the vocabulary of the
language (see also Hocket 1958). Hudson (1980) refers to borrowing as the linguistics process that involves
taking words from a language into another. In other words, borrowing results from the contact and interaction of
two or more languages. Dzameshie (1996:141) believes that “borrowing is not merely the ways in which the
lexicon of one language interferes with that of another; it is the productive outworking of the social dynamics of
a language-contact situation”. When these borrowed lexical items enter into the borrowing language, what
happens to them in the borrowing language is what is referred to as assimilation by Hudson (1980), integration
by Dzameshie (1996), adaptation by Winford (2003) and incorporation by (Myers-Scotton 2006). Winford
(2003:37) states that the common cause of borrowing is “the need to designate new things, persons, places and
concepts” see also works of Mohideen 2006, kingei 2005, Petzell 2005, Mackey 2000, Miao 2005).
2.1 Some theoretical discussions
According to Angermeryer (2005), bilingual writers’ have the choice of script to ascertain the status of a word;
that is be it borrowed or codeswitched. He goes on that in an attempt for an author to incorporate words from one
language to another, he/she may either alternate between writing systems or may transliterate words from one
language into the writing systems of another. He continues that writers use Cyrillic script to mark a word which
is borrowed and would use a roman script to mark a word that is code-switched. Writers may however use
hybrid forms of both Cyrillic and Roman scripts when the use of one script makes the word ambiguous.
Angermeryer contends that in writing, the choice of orthography by writers show that he or she has ascribed a
word to a particular language (Angermeryer 2005). Angermeryer believes that the choice of script is the best
option for writers to distinguish between borrowed items from code-switched ones. He writes:
In writing, this adaptation can be achieved by transliterating
a word into the writing system of the recipient language, giving
it a new form that fits the recipient’s orthographic norms. The
need to choose a particular writing system thus generally forces
bilinguals to attribute a word to a given language, because each
language is tied to a particular script and a particular orthography.
When there is uncertainty as to which language a lexical item
“belongs” to, this orthographic choice may be taken as evidence
that the writer attributes a form to a particular language, whether
this reflects an unconscious categorization or an unintentional
choice. Angermeryer (2005:495)
In view of the above assertions made by Angermeyer, the choice of letters either conforming to the writing
system of the borrowing or the borrowed language plays a vital role in issues such as looking at some
phonological issues in graphics. So that the phonotactic rules of a given language dictate the choice of letters
used by writers; for instance if a word from the borrowing language does not entertain consonant cluster, writers
may be forced to present the word in a way to adhere to the syllable structure of the borrowing language.
Sometimes too, the phonotactic rules of the borrowed language are such that nothing can be done about the
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borrowed item and so may be written as it is. This is where Angermeryer believes that when such issues occur,
then one may be able to distinguish between borrowed or code switched items.
2.1.1 Winford (2003)
Winford (2003) simplifies Haugen (1950)’s work and postulates that lexical contact could be grouped into two
main categories: lexical borrowing and creation. Creation according to Winford (2003) has to do with the native
language and has no counterpart in the donor language. Lexical borrowing could further be split into loanwords
and loanshifts. Loanwords involve a total morphemic incorporation of single or compound words with a varying
amount of phonemic substitution derived from the external source language. The phonemic adoption increases
over time. There are however fully adopted words with no visible degree of phonemic change although the
pronunciation has gone through a process of nativization. Loanwords can also be subdivided into pure loanwords
and loanblends as posited by Winford (2003). Pure loanwords by him may consist of single words or compounds
that undergo a sort of semantic modification. Loanblends take place when a morpheme from the source language
is combined with the morpheme from the target language. Loanshifts also called coinages differ from loanwords
in that their form is the same as in the source language, but the semantics undergo an alteration in the target
language. Winford (2003) explains that they are cases of ‘extensions’ in that their meanings have extended to
explain other concepts. These extensions could be divided into what is known as semantic loans and calques.
Semantic loans are those that the extension of the meaning is borrowed. Creations by Winford (2003) have three
types. These differ from lexical borrowing in that they are inventions based on patterns in the target language
which have no real corresponding item in the source language. The first one has to do with purely target
language morphemes to express new ones. Secondly, there is a type that involves a combination of source and
target morphemes. The third talks about the combinations of foreign words or morphemes for new concepts.
Information from Winford will help look at how writers have incorporated English items into newspapers.
3. Distribution of English Items from Newspapers
In all, 416 English words were collected with a word occurring more than 45 times at most and at least, once. It
is argued that words incorporated into the language are mostly content words (Poplack etal 1988, Petzell 2005
and Yang 2005 etc). Our data indicate that English items in the nouns category in Kiswahili is the largest with
416(89.51%), followed by adverbs with 30 (5.83%) and verbs with 24(4.66%) of English items. The figures
mentioned above support the assertion made by other research works that nouns are the most borrowed items.
4. Integration of English Items in Swahili Newspapers
Angermeyer (2005:496) argues that writers have the choice to make words look native by writing foreign items
as Russian or English by spelling them as English. This phenomenon exists as well in Kiswahili. Although,
Kiswahili also uses the Roman script, most items have been written in Kiswahili orthography (spelling) whereas
fewer are written in English orthography.
Observations from our data are that newspaper writers are attributing English items to Kiswahili by nativizing
English items with Kiswahili orthography. We therefore agree with Angermeyer that
In writing, this adaptation can be achieved by transliterating a word into
the writing system of the recipient language, giving it a new form that fits
the recipient’s orthographic norms. The need to choose a particular writing
system thus generally forces bilinguals to attribute a word to a given
language, because each language is tied to a particular script and a
particular orthography. When there is uncertainty as to which language a
lexical item “belongs” to, this orthographic choice may be taken as
evidence that the writer attributes a form to a particular language, whether
this reflects an unconscious categorization or an intentional choice.
Angermeyer (2005:496)
4.1 Phonological Adaptations in Syllable structure in newspapaers
We noticed that most of the nativized English items in the newspapers are in conformity with Kiswahili syllable
structure. While Kiswahili operates a CV, V or C (syllabic nasal) syllable structure system (see Polome1967;
Amidu 1997 and Ashton 1947), English operates a CV, CVC, VC, CVCVCV, CCCVC, or CCCVCCC (Duanmu
and Stiennon 2004). Here we become aware that writers are attributing English items to Swahili. Our data
plausibly exhibit such words as timu “team” kocha “coach” boksi “boxing” dansi “dance” ponografia
“pornography” jaji “judge” meneja “manager” luteni “lieutenant” jenerali “general” adventista “Adventist” chifu
“chief” nesi “nurse” teknolojia “technology” kebo “cable” feni “fan” maili “mail”. These words above and
others are nativized English items into Kiswahili, a suggestion of them being Kiswahili / loan words.
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It should be pointed out that Kiswahili words have open syllables whereas English words have open and closed
syllables. In the data, words that end in consonants in English have vowels added to them in Kiswahili since
Kiswahili syllable structure is open. These are examples of words in conformity with the Swahili syllable
structure kadi “card”, mechi “match” politiki “politics”, kampeni “campaign”, muziki “music”, jeki “jack”,
hoteli “hotel” sajenti “sergeant” saikolojisti “psychologist” skuli “school” biskuti “biscuit” et cetera.
4.1.2 Consonant cluster tolerance in newspapers
When the syllable structure is in conformity with the donor language, then the phonotactics (Kenstowicz 2004)
of the donor language is obeyed. This brought about the existence of consonant clusters which were not in
Kiswahili. Examples of cluster tolerance of English items in Kiswahili from the data are sounds such as /st/, /kn/,
/kt/, /tr/, /kr/ and /sk/. These sounds could be found in words such as /st/ in stempu ‘stamp’, stendi ‘stand’; /kn/ in
teknolojia ‘technology’ and teknokrat ‘technocrat’; /kt/ in diktektiv ‘detective ,sekta ‘sector’ /tr/ in jiometri
‘geometry’ ,distri ‘district’. Others are /kr/ in demokrasia ‘democracy’, krismasi ‘christmas’; and /sk/ in words
such as disko ‘disco’, diski ‘disk’ etc. (cf: Marjie 2010).
4.1.2 Feature Deletions in newspapers
At times some features or segments may be deleted when Kiswahili takes up English words. These could be
found in words like “picture”, “chalk”, “railway”, “penalty”, and “electricity” which are recorded as picha,
chaki, reli, penatii/penati, elektrii respectively. Words that are not made native are left as they are in the English
language.
4.2 Variations of English items in newspapers
Based on the text available, it is also noticed that Kiswahili have had problems with the standardization of
borrowed items and so has led to phonological variations of these words both in speech and in writing. This is
evident in literary books, dictionaries and newspapers an indication that writers do not have a standardized form
of spelling of a particular word. As Chimerah (1998), king’ei (1999) state, there are variations in the spellings of
some English items in Kiswahili due to the lack of a common forum for regulators of the language. A newspaper
may have different spellings of the same word from that of another newspaper. Sometimes too the spellings vary
from that of newspapers and entries in the dictionaries. It is to note that some of the spellings vary slightly.
However, disparities between others vary so much that it be difficult to say they stand for the same word. Here
are a few example of spelling variations of English items in the language ; rikodi/ rekodi, oparesheni/ operesheni,
skimu/ skimi, ofisi/ afisi, jenereta/ jonerator, seketerieti/ sakteriat, satilaiti/ setilaiti, internet/ intaneti/ internet,
Again the Kiswahili spellings of some English words are so different that it is difficult to trace them to the
English words. These are some examples: isikrimu/askrim “ice-cream”, beki “back”, manispaa “municipality,
gavana “governor” kabati “cabinet” kocha “coach” meli “steamship” reli “railway” and others.
5. Verbs
Kiswahili verbs are extended for passive, reciprocity, stative, prepositional and causative effects (see
Mohammed 2001). English verbs in this category are also extended to denote certain voices and could also be
used in the infinitive. Passivization features mostly in our data. The passive extended form is derived in many
ways depending on the vowel that ends the verbs in Kiswahili. The extended form in this context is suffixed –
wa. The corpus data shows a few verbs in the passive voice in the following examples. The examples are repoti
“report” as ripoti-wa “reported”, reko-di “record” becomes rekodi-wa “recorded” etc.
Again, verbs used in their infinitive forms are given the Kiswahili infinitive ku- marker. So for example “to
report” becomes ku-ripoti, “to sign becomes” ku-saini and then “to fail” is realized as ku-feli etc.
5.1 Adverbs
Kiswahili adverbs are described using nouns, verbs and pronouns. There are some that are of Bantu and Arabic
origin. The formation of adverbs in Kiswahili comes in various forms. We have those with the vi-prefix, ki-
prefix, u-prefix, place-prefix and the one with the –ni suffix (Ashton 1947; Wilson 1983; Malaika 1999). The
adverbs that feature in the texts are the ones with the ki-prefix. The formation of this adverb is ki + noun
denoting “in the manner of” which depicts manner. Eg. Kidiplomasia ‘like a diplomat’ Kikomunisti ‘(practice)
communism’.
6. Aspects of word-formation processes in newspapers
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There have been some borrowing processes in the newspapers looking at the way English items are treated.
Winford (2003) states that words are grouped into two major categories; loanwords and loanshifts form a
category and creations form another.
Loanwords according to the theory are single or compound morphemes totally incorporated into the recipient
language with some phonemic substitution. Here are some English items that have undergone phonemic
substitution with some amount of variations such as kampuni “company”, silabasi “syllable” historia “history”,
bajeti “budget”, treni, “train” kwaya “choir”, notisi “notice” fleti “flat” kanali ‘colonel’. Those without
morpheme substitution are ‘switchboard’, ‘republican’ “technical error” “swan flu”, “formula” and “recession”
etc.
6.1 English nouns and Kiswahili class systems
This category is known as loanblends- ie combination of Kiswahili and English morphemes (Marjie 2010). The
data shows mostly native prefixes with foreign stems for nouns, verbs and adverbs. However, suffixes could
also be added to verbs for derivational effects. Nouns in this category are those with Kiswahili class prefixes and
English stems. A few examples are listed below. Here in Kiswahili class 1 has m, prefix, class 2 has wa prefix
class 6 has ma prefix and the U class has u prefix
1a) In class 1 we have Mwana-muziki “musician”, m-katoliki “a catholic”, and class 2 has Wa-marekani
“Americans”, wa-afrika “Africans”, Wa-mishionari “missionnaire’’.
1b) Class 6 recorded words such as ma-kondakta “conductors”, ma-profesa “professors”, ma-gavana
“governors”, ma-seneta “senators”, ma-ripota “reporters”.
1c) Class U hasU-islamu “Islam”, U-kocha “act of coaching”, U-koloni “colonialism”.
6. 2 English verbs/ adverbs and Kiswahili morphemes
Verbs in this category are ku-promoti ‘to promote’, ku-rekodi ‘to record’, ku-repoti as in ‘to report’, ku-saini “to
sign”, ku-pasi “to pass”. There are also foreign words with Kiswahili suffix when verbs are extended to derive
passivization as already explained in 5. Below are examples to explain the concept. Sainiwa “to be signed” and
panishiwa “be punished”.
Adverbs in this category also have Kiswahili prefix and foreign stem. Words in this area are kiteknolijia
“technologically”, kisaikolojia “psychologically”, kidemokrasia “democratically” etc.
Tan (2009) describes another loanblend as a compound blend where two nominals are put together (see also
Marjie 2010). The following are some examples in that regard: nusu wa fainali ‘semi finals’ robo wa fainali
‘quarter finals’ spika wa bunge ‘speaker of parliament’. filamu ya kitanzania ‘Tanzanian films’. Loanshifts, also
referred to as coinages, are words that are the same as the donor language but the meanings have been extended
to refer to other concepts in the recipient language (Winford 2003).These could be semantic loans where the
meaning of the foreign item is borrowed and extended to other concepts like a phrase in Kiswahili newspapers
ligi za nyumbani ‘literally league of the house’ meaning ‘home match’
Calquing is another form of borrowing where words from the recipient language are used in substitution of
foreign words. Examples are pesa za kigeni (literally means foreign /strange money) meaning ‘foreign exchange’
and Kombe la mataifa ‘Cup of Nations’. There is also the use of local words to capture a foreign concept.
Examples in this regard are kuzidi (to exceed) or kuiba (to steal) used for ‘offside’, biashara nje (outside trade)
used for ‘export’ simu ya mkononi (literally phone of the hand) ‘mobile phone or handset’.
7.0 Data Analysis (Questionnaires)
The views of writers were sought on why they used English items in their newspaper reporting. In all, 30
questionnaires were sent out to Dar es Salaam. The following is a representation of their views.
On the personal data of the 30 respondents, 9 are female and 21 are male representing 30% and 70%
respectively. There are 12 (40%) editors and 18 (60%) newspaper writers (reporters). This means that all of them
are journalists in the print media. All the journalists had tertiary education representing 100% of the total number
of respondents. Their ages are 26-35years representing 10(33.3%), 36-45 years are 9(30%), 45-50years are 6
(20%) and 50years and above is 5 (16.7%).
With respect to their native language, 9 (30%) respondents acknowledged that they speak Kiswahili. With the
rest of the languages, 5(16.7) said they are Kihaya speakers, 5(16.7) respondents also said they are Kiarabu, 4
(13.3) respondents said they are Kisukumas, the number of respondents who spoke Kikuyu are 3(10%) Kiluo
had 2 (6.7%) and 2 (6.7%) respondents said they are Kichagas. It is worth mentioning that 9 respondents say
they Kiswahili natives, the rest come from different ethnic language backgrounds.
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7.1 Reasons for the use of English items in newspapers
Various reasons were given for the use of English items in the newspapers by the writers. The questionnaire was
such that writers were given options to choose from as many as they could think of if applicable. Out of the 30
respondents 3(10%) said there are sometimes no Kiswahili words for some terms. 28 (93.3) respondents said
English words are more adequate. With regards to the question on flexibility, all 30 (100%) respondents said
English items are very flexible to use. This is because some Kiswahili words need further elaboration. One editor
from Mwana Halisi newspaper in a personal communication explained further that “Kiswahili words sometimes
need illustration as some of the readers are not much used to them as they understand their mother languages”.
Again, 15(50%) respondents said the use of English items is to create variability in newspapers. Therefore it
gives readers the chance to know of other foreign words that could be used in the language. 26 respondents
acknowledged that English words depict modernity and sophistication representing (86.7%). All 30 journalists
said English items are used for stylistic purposes. To find out whether the length of Kiswahili words made
writers use English items instead, 30 (100%) respondents answered in the affirmative. 19 (63.3%) journalists
said English items sounded better.
The writers were asked about the class of readers in mind when writing in the newspapers and all 30(100%)
respondents said they have all the citizens in mind. 17 (56.7%) further ticked for the old folk because they were
asked to tick as many as are applicable.
Furthermore, all 30 (100%) respondents said they use English items even if there are Kiswahili words that could
serve the same purpose. A writer further explained that sometimes English items were easier to reach out for
than Kiswahili items.
8.0 Conclusion
This paper has shown how Kiswahili newspaper writers exhibit their knowledge of bilingualism by showcasing
the use of English and Kiswahili in their articles. Because English items in these news items are treated as
Kiswahili, certain phonological principles are followed such as mentioned above. The study identified in
newspapers that because English items are borrowed certain borrowing processes are observed as mentioned in
Winford (2003). It is noticed that certain words have undergone certain morphemic substitutions. There are also
complete or partial assimilation of English borrowed items into Kiswahili. The research found out that the words
in Kiswahili spelling are more frequent than those spelt in English way. Again, most of the words are a blend of
native morpheme and foreign morpheme either for a native or English concept. Others are created with either
foreign or native morphemes to express native or foreign concepts. With regards to the variations in spelling, a
word has more than two spellings. Some are in congruence with entries in the dictionaries whereas others are
not. It is therefore sometimes difficult to know which spelling to adopt. We have confirmed other writers’ claim
that English nouns occur more than all the other parts of speech in Kiswahili-based texts. Journalists also gave
various reasons why they incorporated English items in newspapers. Generally, these are done for stylistic
purposes, for sophistication and modernity.
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New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online)
Vol.16, 2013
8
Poplack, Shana Sankoff, David and Miller, Christopher 1988, The Social Correlates and Linguistic Processes of
Lexical Borrowing and Assimilation, Linguistics 26, pp 47-104.
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2009.<screcherch.univ-lyon3.fr/lexis/IMG/pdf/lexis_3_Imm.pdf>.
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Winford, Deonald 2003, An Introduction to Contact Linguistics, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers.
Yang Jian 2005, Lexical innovations in China English. World Englishes 24 Vol 4 , pp 425 – 436.
Zuckermann,Ghil'ad 2009, Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns, Journal of
Language Contact, Varia 2, pp 40-67.
A Table of lexical contact phenomena (Winford 2003)
Types Processes involved Examples
I- Borrowing modeled on the
donor language
A. Loanwords:
1. “Pure”loanwords
Total morphemic
incorporation of single or
compound words
Varying degrees of phonemic
substitution
Possible semantic change
Rendezvous
Chinchibiri
Dutch corner
2. loanblends Combination of native and
imported morphemes
2a. Derivational blend Imported stem +native affix
Native stem +imported affix
PG bassig
Eng. boss+Germ. ing
Jap. inchigo-ed ‘strawberry’+-
ade
2b compound blend Imported stem+ native stem PG blaumepie
‘Plum’ +pie
B loanshifts (loan meanings
1 “Extensions”
(semantic loans)
Shift in the semantics of a
native word under influence
from a foreign word
phonological resemblance
partial semantic resemblance
Am. Port. humoroso
“humorous”
Am. Port. frio “cold infection”
2 Loan translations
(calques)
Combination of native
morphemes in imitation
foreign pattern
Germ. Wolkenkratzer
cf. Eng. skyscraper
II Native creations
1. Purely native creations Innovative use of native words
to express foreign concepts
Pima “wrinkled buttocks” for
“elephant”
2 . Hybrid creations Blend of native and foreign
morphemes to express foreign
concepts
Yaqui lios-nooka “pray”
3. creations using only
foreign morphemes
Combinations of foreign
morphemes for new concepts
Jap. wan-man-ka
This academic article was published by The International Institute for Science,
Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access
Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is
Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing.
More information about the publisher can be found in the IISTE’s homepage:
http://www.iiste.org
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Borrowings in texts a case of tanzanian newspapers

  • 1. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 1 Borrowings in Texts: A Case of Tanzanian Newspapers Sarah Marjie-Okyere Department of Modern Languages University Of Ghana, Legon *Email: yomarjie@yahoo.com Abstract We have observed that not only does borrowing feature in aural data; it is also prominent in written texts, specifically in newspapers. This paper examines the use of borrowed words found in issues of Tanzanian newspapers from 2007 to 2009. The study also sought views from newspaper writers through a qualitative and well structured questionnaire on reasons why they would prefer using borrowed English words to Kiswahili native words. The analysis of the questionnaire shows that sometimes Kiswahili words were either too lengthy or writers use English items as means of prestige, sophistication or even sometimes for stylistic purposes, among others. We also noted that although writers treat English items as Kiswahili, the Kiswahili class systems are not affected. Traces of evidences of spelling variations of these English borrowed items into Kiswahili confirm assertions made by other scholars in this field that most borrowed items are not standardized. Keywords: loanwords, nativization, newspapers, borrowing. 1. Introduction Kiswahili has incorporated a great deal of borrowed items into its vocabulary. These English items are not found only in spoken Kiswahili, they are also present in the print media and other written texts. Much work has been done on borrowing in the area of spoken data such as Gower (1952), Polome (1967), Mwita (2009) etc. Some research works on written data can also be found in Kachru (1989), Petzell (2005), Dzahene-Quarshie (2010). The paper concentrates on how foreign words are integrated into Kiswahili by choice of script and also looks at some of the borrowing processes newspaper writers adopt (phonologically or morphologically) when incorporating English items in news articles in newspapers. The paper will also explore writing variations in the written texts. 1.1 The Swahili Language African languages are classified under four categories; namely: Khoisan, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Niger – Congo/ Kordofanian. Swahili belongs to the Niger- Congo group of languages specifically the Sabaki subgroup of Northeastern Coast Bantu languages (Batibo, 2005). Kiswahili is derived from an Arabic word which means port or coastal town. It is spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, Mozambique, Somalia, Uganda, DR Congo and Rwanda and has about 50 million speakers. Kiswahili is dialectically diverse, but Kiswahili ‘Kisanifu’ was standardized by the Inter-Territorial Kiswahili Language Committee in 1930 based on the coastal dialect of Zanzibar, Kiunguja. It is important to note that the orthography of Kiswahili was first in Arabic script, but the Roman script has been used for the writing of Kiswahili from the mid nineteenth century. The Roman-based orthography was standardardized in 1930 (Chimerah, 1998). Kiswahili is the national and official language of Tanzania. It is also the 5th working language of the AU, the others are English, French, Arabic and Portuguese, hence Kiswahili is the only African Language which is a working language in the AU. Like other Bantu languages, Kiswahili has a rich noun class system. Traditionally, there are eighteen (18) noun classes where each class has its particular class prefix attached to the noun stem. There are 10 classes of singular nouns with their plural counterparts. Again, there is a class for abstract nouns, a class for verbal infinitives used as nouns, and three locative classes (Ashton, 1944; Mohammed, 2001; Petzell, 2005& Contini-Morava, 2008). These classes are divided into semantic characteristics such as classes for human beings, animals, plants, artifacts, abstract concepts and location determined by nominal prefixes. With respect to verbs in Kiswahili, they comprise roots and prefixes. Grammatically, these affixes can be added to the roots in order to express persons, tenses, and subordinate clauses. Kiswahili adverbial stems also take affixes. There exists a category of adverbs that uses the vi-prefix and another that uses the ki-prefix and yet a third that precedes the words by kwa (Marjie 2010). 1.2 Data and methodology The data consist of three Kiswahili-based newspapers issued between 2007 and 2009 in Tanzania. These newspapers are Mwananchi, Uhuru, Mwana Halisi. They contain news items related to politics, economics,
  • 2. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 2 social life, entertainment and other issues relating to activities of everyday life of the people living in the under- mentioned country. From each section, 24 newspapers were randomly selected and evenly distributed over the year to avoid biasness. In all about one hundred and forty four (144) newspapers were used. After a page by page review was done, about 416 words were gathered from the newspapers. The research grouped the borrowed items into parts of speech. The study also considered the number of times the words occurred to know the category of words that are mostly borrowed into the language. Since variation is a feature of this paper, variations in spellings were also looked at to check on the differences and similarities in the documents regarding newspaper publications. Newspaper writers and editors were interviewed on the motivations for the use of loanwords in the newspapers through questionnaires. This paper probes the nature and level of the use of English items in Kiswahili in Tanzanian newspapers using Angermeryer’s (2005) analysis of script choice and Winford (2003)’s theory of borrowing processes. 2. What is borrowing? Every language in this world has its own set of vocabulary. However, sometimes words from one language find their ways into the vocabulary of another language because these languages may have been in contact in one way or the other. When two or more languages come into contact with one another, borrowing may take place. Crystal (1985:36) defines borrowing as “linguistics forms being taken over by one language or dialect from another….” Less commonly, sounds and other grammatical structures may be borrowed. Bloomfield (1933) explains that borrowing is a natural phenomenon in every language which helps to expand the vocabulary of the language (see also Hocket 1958). Hudson (1980) refers to borrowing as the linguistics process that involves taking words from a language into another. In other words, borrowing results from the contact and interaction of two or more languages. Dzameshie (1996:141) believes that “borrowing is not merely the ways in which the lexicon of one language interferes with that of another; it is the productive outworking of the social dynamics of a language-contact situation”. When these borrowed lexical items enter into the borrowing language, what happens to them in the borrowing language is what is referred to as assimilation by Hudson (1980), integration by Dzameshie (1996), adaptation by Winford (2003) and incorporation by (Myers-Scotton 2006). Winford (2003:37) states that the common cause of borrowing is “the need to designate new things, persons, places and concepts” see also works of Mohideen 2006, kingei 2005, Petzell 2005, Mackey 2000, Miao 2005). 2.1 Some theoretical discussions According to Angermeryer (2005), bilingual writers’ have the choice of script to ascertain the status of a word; that is be it borrowed or codeswitched. He goes on that in an attempt for an author to incorporate words from one language to another, he/she may either alternate between writing systems or may transliterate words from one language into the writing systems of another. He continues that writers use Cyrillic script to mark a word which is borrowed and would use a roman script to mark a word that is code-switched. Writers may however use hybrid forms of both Cyrillic and Roman scripts when the use of one script makes the word ambiguous. Angermeryer contends that in writing, the choice of orthography by writers show that he or she has ascribed a word to a particular language (Angermeryer 2005). Angermeryer believes that the choice of script is the best option for writers to distinguish between borrowed items from code-switched ones. He writes: In writing, this adaptation can be achieved by transliterating a word into the writing system of the recipient language, giving it a new form that fits the recipient’s orthographic norms. The need to choose a particular writing system thus generally forces bilinguals to attribute a word to a given language, because each language is tied to a particular script and a particular orthography. When there is uncertainty as to which language a lexical item “belongs” to, this orthographic choice may be taken as evidence that the writer attributes a form to a particular language, whether this reflects an unconscious categorization or an unintentional choice. Angermeryer (2005:495) In view of the above assertions made by Angermeyer, the choice of letters either conforming to the writing system of the borrowing or the borrowed language plays a vital role in issues such as looking at some phonological issues in graphics. So that the phonotactic rules of a given language dictate the choice of letters used by writers; for instance if a word from the borrowing language does not entertain consonant cluster, writers may be forced to present the word in a way to adhere to the syllable structure of the borrowing language. Sometimes too, the phonotactic rules of the borrowed language are such that nothing can be done about the
  • 3. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 3 borrowed item and so may be written as it is. This is where Angermeryer believes that when such issues occur, then one may be able to distinguish between borrowed or code switched items. 2.1.1 Winford (2003) Winford (2003) simplifies Haugen (1950)’s work and postulates that lexical contact could be grouped into two main categories: lexical borrowing and creation. Creation according to Winford (2003) has to do with the native language and has no counterpart in the donor language. Lexical borrowing could further be split into loanwords and loanshifts. Loanwords involve a total morphemic incorporation of single or compound words with a varying amount of phonemic substitution derived from the external source language. The phonemic adoption increases over time. There are however fully adopted words with no visible degree of phonemic change although the pronunciation has gone through a process of nativization. Loanwords can also be subdivided into pure loanwords and loanblends as posited by Winford (2003). Pure loanwords by him may consist of single words or compounds that undergo a sort of semantic modification. Loanblends take place when a morpheme from the source language is combined with the morpheme from the target language. Loanshifts also called coinages differ from loanwords in that their form is the same as in the source language, but the semantics undergo an alteration in the target language. Winford (2003) explains that they are cases of ‘extensions’ in that their meanings have extended to explain other concepts. These extensions could be divided into what is known as semantic loans and calques. Semantic loans are those that the extension of the meaning is borrowed. Creations by Winford (2003) have three types. These differ from lexical borrowing in that they are inventions based on patterns in the target language which have no real corresponding item in the source language. The first one has to do with purely target language morphemes to express new ones. Secondly, there is a type that involves a combination of source and target morphemes. The third talks about the combinations of foreign words or morphemes for new concepts. Information from Winford will help look at how writers have incorporated English items into newspapers. 3. Distribution of English Items from Newspapers In all, 416 English words were collected with a word occurring more than 45 times at most and at least, once. It is argued that words incorporated into the language are mostly content words (Poplack etal 1988, Petzell 2005 and Yang 2005 etc). Our data indicate that English items in the nouns category in Kiswahili is the largest with 416(89.51%), followed by adverbs with 30 (5.83%) and verbs with 24(4.66%) of English items. The figures mentioned above support the assertion made by other research works that nouns are the most borrowed items. 4. Integration of English Items in Swahili Newspapers Angermeyer (2005:496) argues that writers have the choice to make words look native by writing foreign items as Russian or English by spelling them as English. This phenomenon exists as well in Kiswahili. Although, Kiswahili also uses the Roman script, most items have been written in Kiswahili orthography (spelling) whereas fewer are written in English orthography. Observations from our data are that newspaper writers are attributing English items to Kiswahili by nativizing English items with Kiswahili orthography. We therefore agree with Angermeyer that In writing, this adaptation can be achieved by transliterating a word into the writing system of the recipient language, giving it a new form that fits the recipient’s orthographic norms. The need to choose a particular writing system thus generally forces bilinguals to attribute a word to a given language, because each language is tied to a particular script and a particular orthography. When there is uncertainty as to which language a lexical item “belongs” to, this orthographic choice may be taken as evidence that the writer attributes a form to a particular language, whether this reflects an unconscious categorization or an intentional choice. Angermeyer (2005:496) 4.1 Phonological Adaptations in Syllable structure in newspapaers We noticed that most of the nativized English items in the newspapers are in conformity with Kiswahili syllable structure. While Kiswahili operates a CV, V or C (syllabic nasal) syllable structure system (see Polome1967; Amidu 1997 and Ashton 1947), English operates a CV, CVC, VC, CVCVCV, CCCVC, or CCCVCCC (Duanmu and Stiennon 2004). Here we become aware that writers are attributing English items to Swahili. Our data plausibly exhibit such words as timu “team” kocha “coach” boksi “boxing” dansi “dance” ponografia “pornography” jaji “judge” meneja “manager” luteni “lieutenant” jenerali “general” adventista “Adventist” chifu “chief” nesi “nurse” teknolojia “technology” kebo “cable” feni “fan” maili “mail”. These words above and others are nativized English items into Kiswahili, a suggestion of them being Kiswahili / loan words.
  • 4. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 4 It should be pointed out that Kiswahili words have open syllables whereas English words have open and closed syllables. In the data, words that end in consonants in English have vowels added to them in Kiswahili since Kiswahili syllable structure is open. These are examples of words in conformity with the Swahili syllable structure kadi “card”, mechi “match” politiki “politics”, kampeni “campaign”, muziki “music”, jeki “jack”, hoteli “hotel” sajenti “sergeant” saikolojisti “psychologist” skuli “school” biskuti “biscuit” et cetera. 4.1.2 Consonant cluster tolerance in newspapers When the syllable structure is in conformity with the donor language, then the phonotactics (Kenstowicz 2004) of the donor language is obeyed. This brought about the existence of consonant clusters which were not in Kiswahili. Examples of cluster tolerance of English items in Kiswahili from the data are sounds such as /st/, /kn/, /kt/, /tr/, /kr/ and /sk/. These sounds could be found in words such as /st/ in stempu ‘stamp’, stendi ‘stand’; /kn/ in teknolojia ‘technology’ and teknokrat ‘technocrat’; /kt/ in diktektiv ‘detective ,sekta ‘sector’ /tr/ in jiometri ‘geometry’ ,distri ‘district’. Others are /kr/ in demokrasia ‘democracy’, krismasi ‘christmas’; and /sk/ in words such as disko ‘disco’, diski ‘disk’ etc. (cf: Marjie 2010). 4.1.2 Feature Deletions in newspapers At times some features or segments may be deleted when Kiswahili takes up English words. These could be found in words like “picture”, “chalk”, “railway”, “penalty”, and “electricity” which are recorded as picha, chaki, reli, penatii/penati, elektrii respectively. Words that are not made native are left as they are in the English language. 4.2 Variations of English items in newspapers Based on the text available, it is also noticed that Kiswahili have had problems with the standardization of borrowed items and so has led to phonological variations of these words both in speech and in writing. This is evident in literary books, dictionaries and newspapers an indication that writers do not have a standardized form of spelling of a particular word. As Chimerah (1998), king’ei (1999) state, there are variations in the spellings of some English items in Kiswahili due to the lack of a common forum for regulators of the language. A newspaper may have different spellings of the same word from that of another newspaper. Sometimes too the spellings vary from that of newspapers and entries in the dictionaries. It is to note that some of the spellings vary slightly. However, disparities between others vary so much that it be difficult to say they stand for the same word. Here are a few example of spelling variations of English items in the language ; rikodi/ rekodi, oparesheni/ operesheni, skimu/ skimi, ofisi/ afisi, jenereta/ jonerator, seketerieti/ sakteriat, satilaiti/ setilaiti, internet/ intaneti/ internet, Again the Kiswahili spellings of some English words are so different that it is difficult to trace them to the English words. These are some examples: isikrimu/askrim “ice-cream”, beki “back”, manispaa “municipality, gavana “governor” kabati “cabinet” kocha “coach” meli “steamship” reli “railway” and others. 5. Verbs Kiswahili verbs are extended for passive, reciprocity, stative, prepositional and causative effects (see Mohammed 2001). English verbs in this category are also extended to denote certain voices and could also be used in the infinitive. Passivization features mostly in our data. The passive extended form is derived in many ways depending on the vowel that ends the verbs in Kiswahili. The extended form in this context is suffixed – wa. The corpus data shows a few verbs in the passive voice in the following examples. The examples are repoti “report” as ripoti-wa “reported”, reko-di “record” becomes rekodi-wa “recorded” etc. Again, verbs used in their infinitive forms are given the Kiswahili infinitive ku- marker. So for example “to report” becomes ku-ripoti, “to sign becomes” ku-saini and then “to fail” is realized as ku-feli etc. 5.1 Adverbs Kiswahili adverbs are described using nouns, verbs and pronouns. There are some that are of Bantu and Arabic origin. The formation of adverbs in Kiswahili comes in various forms. We have those with the vi-prefix, ki- prefix, u-prefix, place-prefix and the one with the –ni suffix (Ashton 1947; Wilson 1983; Malaika 1999). The adverbs that feature in the texts are the ones with the ki-prefix. The formation of this adverb is ki + noun denoting “in the manner of” which depicts manner. Eg. Kidiplomasia ‘like a diplomat’ Kikomunisti ‘(practice) communism’. 6. Aspects of word-formation processes in newspapers
  • 5. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 5 There have been some borrowing processes in the newspapers looking at the way English items are treated. Winford (2003) states that words are grouped into two major categories; loanwords and loanshifts form a category and creations form another. Loanwords according to the theory are single or compound morphemes totally incorporated into the recipient language with some phonemic substitution. Here are some English items that have undergone phonemic substitution with some amount of variations such as kampuni “company”, silabasi “syllable” historia “history”, bajeti “budget”, treni, “train” kwaya “choir”, notisi “notice” fleti “flat” kanali ‘colonel’. Those without morpheme substitution are ‘switchboard’, ‘republican’ “technical error” “swan flu”, “formula” and “recession” etc. 6.1 English nouns and Kiswahili class systems This category is known as loanblends- ie combination of Kiswahili and English morphemes (Marjie 2010). The data shows mostly native prefixes with foreign stems for nouns, verbs and adverbs. However, suffixes could also be added to verbs for derivational effects. Nouns in this category are those with Kiswahili class prefixes and English stems. A few examples are listed below. Here in Kiswahili class 1 has m, prefix, class 2 has wa prefix class 6 has ma prefix and the U class has u prefix 1a) In class 1 we have Mwana-muziki “musician”, m-katoliki “a catholic”, and class 2 has Wa-marekani “Americans”, wa-afrika “Africans”, Wa-mishionari “missionnaire’’. 1b) Class 6 recorded words such as ma-kondakta “conductors”, ma-profesa “professors”, ma-gavana “governors”, ma-seneta “senators”, ma-ripota “reporters”. 1c) Class U hasU-islamu “Islam”, U-kocha “act of coaching”, U-koloni “colonialism”. 6. 2 English verbs/ adverbs and Kiswahili morphemes Verbs in this category are ku-promoti ‘to promote’, ku-rekodi ‘to record’, ku-repoti as in ‘to report’, ku-saini “to sign”, ku-pasi “to pass”. There are also foreign words with Kiswahili suffix when verbs are extended to derive passivization as already explained in 5. Below are examples to explain the concept. Sainiwa “to be signed” and panishiwa “be punished”. Adverbs in this category also have Kiswahili prefix and foreign stem. Words in this area are kiteknolijia “technologically”, kisaikolojia “psychologically”, kidemokrasia “democratically” etc. Tan (2009) describes another loanblend as a compound blend where two nominals are put together (see also Marjie 2010). The following are some examples in that regard: nusu wa fainali ‘semi finals’ robo wa fainali ‘quarter finals’ spika wa bunge ‘speaker of parliament’. filamu ya kitanzania ‘Tanzanian films’. Loanshifts, also referred to as coinages, are words that are the same as the donor language but the meanings have been extended to refer to other concepts in the recipient language (Winford 2003).These could be semantic loans where the meaning of the foreign item is borrowed and extended to other concepts like a phrase in Kiswahili newspapers ligi za nyumbani ‘literally league of the house’ meaning ‘home match’ Calquing is another form of borrowing where words from the recipient language are used in substitution of foreign words. Examples are pesa za kigeni (literally means foreign /strange money) meaning ‘foreign exchange’ and Kombe la mataifa ‘Cup of Nations’. There is also the use of local words to capture a foreign concept. Examples in this regard are kuzidi (to exceed) or kuiba (to steal) used for ‘offside’, biashara nje (outside trade) used for ‘export’ simu ya mkononi (literally phone of the hand) ‘mobile phone or handset’. 7.0 Data Analysis (Questionnaires) The views of writers were sought on why they used English items in their newspaper reporting. In all, 30 questionnaires were sent out to Dar es Salaam. The following is a representation of their views. On the personal data of the 30 respondents, 9 are female and 21 are male representing 30% and 70% respectively. There are 12 (40%) editors and 18 (60%) newspaper writers (reporters). This means that all of them are journalists in the print media. All the journalists had tertiary education representing 100% of the total number of respondents. Their ages are 26-35years representing 10(33.3%), 36-45 years are 9(30%), 45-50years are 6 (20%) and 50years and above is 5 (16.7%). With respect to their native language, 9 (30%) respondents acknowledged that they speak Kiswahili. With the rest of the languages, 5(16.7) said they are Kihaya speakers, 5(16.7) respondents also said they are Kiarabu, 4 (13.3) respondents said they are Kisukumas, the number of respondents who spoke Kikuyu are 3(10%) Kiluo had 2 (6.7%) and 2 (6.7%) respondents said they are Kichagas. It is worth mentioning that 9 respondents say they Kiswahili natives, the rest come from different ethnic language backgrounds.
  • 6. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 6 7.1 Reasons for the use of English items in newspapers Various reasons were given for the use of English items in the newspapers by the writers. The questionnaire was such that writers were given options to choose from as many as they could think of if applicable. Out of the 30 respondents 3(10%) said there are sometimes no Kiswahili words for some terms. 28 (93.3) respondents said English words are more adequate. With regards to the question on flexibility, all 30 (100%) respondents said English items are very flexible to use. This is because some Kiswahili words need further elaboration. One editor from Mwana Halisi newspaper in a personal communication explained further that “Kiswahili words sometimes need illustration as some of the readers are not much used to them as they understand their mother languages”. Again, 15(50%) respondents said the use of English items is to create variability in newspapers. Therefore it gives readers the chance to know of other foreign words that could be used in the language. 26 respondents acknowledged that English words depict modernity and sophistication representing (86.7%). All 30 journalists said English items are used for stylistic purposes. To find out whether the length of Kiswahili words made writers use English items instead, 30 (100%) respondents answered in the affirmative. 19 (63.3%) journalists said English items sounded better. The writers were asked about the class of readers in mind when writing in the newspapers and all 30(100%) respondents said they have all the citizens in mind. 17 (56.7%) further ticked for the old folk because they were asked to tick as many as are applicable. Furthermore, all 30 (100%) respondents said they use English items even if there are Kiswahili words that could serve the same purpose. A writer further explained that sometimes English items were easier to reach out for than Kiswahili items. 8.0 Conclusion This paper has shown how Kiswahili newspaper writers exhibit their knowledge of bilingualism by showcasing the use of English and Kiswahili in their articles. Because English items in these news items are treated as Kiswahili, certain phonological principles are followed such as mentioned above. The study identified in newspapers that because English items are borrowed certain borrowing processes are observed as mentioned in Winford (2003). It is noticed that certain words have undergone certain morphemic substitutions. There are also complete or partial assimilation of English borrowed items into Kiswahili. The research found out that the words in Kiswahili spelling are more frequent than those spelt in English way. Again, most of the words are a blend of native morpheme and foreign morpheme either for a native or English concept. Others are created with either foreign or native morphemes to express native or foreign concepts. With regards to the variations in spelling, a word has more than two spellings. Some are in congruence with entries in the dictionaries whereas others are not. It is therefore sometimes difficult to know which spelling to adopt. We have confirmed other writers’ claim that English nouns occur more than all the other parts of speech in Kiswahili-based texts. Journalists also gave various reasons why they incorporated English items in newspapers. Generally, these are done for stylistic purposes, for sophistication and modernity. References Amidu, A. A. 1997, ‘Classes in Kiswahili: A Study of their Form and Implications’, in Bernd Heine and Wilhem J.G. Möhlig (eds.), East African Languages and Dialects, Köln, Rudiger Köppe Verlag, pp. 1-434. Angermeryer, P. S. 2005, ‘Spelling Bilingualism: Script Choice in Russian American Classified Ads and Signage’, Language in Society 34, 493–531. Ashton, E.O. 1944, Swahili Grammar, London, Longmans. Batibo, H. 2005, Language Decline and Death in Africa: Causes, Consequences and Challenges, Canada, Multilingual Matters. Bloomfield, L. 1933, Language, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Chimerah, Rocha. 1998, Kiswahili Past, Present and Future Horizons, Nairobi, Nairobi University Press.
  • 7. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 7 Contini-Morava, Ellen 2008, Noun Classification in Swahili, 6th March, 2009, <www2.iath.virginia.edu/swahili/oldversion/swahili.html>. Crystal, D 1985, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, London Routledge. Duanmu, S. and Nathan S. 2004, The Weight-Stress Relation in English Words, Proceedings of The 10th Mid-Continental Workshop on Phonology, Northwestern University, Evanston. Dzahene-Quarshie, J. 2010b, English Loans in Swahili Football Language, Proceedings of the 2nd Lag Conference, University of Ghana, Legon. Dzameshi, A. K. 1996, The social Dynamics of Lexical Borrowing, Legon Journal of the Humanities 9, pp 141- 155. Gower, R.H 1952, Swahili Borrowings from English, African Journal of African Institute Vol. 22, No. 2, 154- 157, May 14, 2009, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1771815>. Haugen, E. 1950, The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing, Language. 26, pp 210-231. Hockett, C.F. 1980, A Course in Modern Linguistics, New York, Macmillan. Hudson, R.A. 1980, Sociolinguistics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Kachru, Y. 1989, Corpus Planning for Modernization, Sanskritization and Englishization of Hindi, Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, 19 Vol 1, pp 153-163. Kenstowicz, M. 2004, Tone loans: The Adaptation of English loanwords into Yoruba, Proceeding of the 35th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, Harvard University. King’ei, K. 1999, Swahili Technical Terminology: Problems of development and Usage. Proceedings of the 12th Swahili Colloquium, University of Bayreuth, Germany Mackey, W. F. 2000, The Description of Bilingualism, in, Li Wei (ed.), The Bilingualism Reader New York, Routledge, pp 26-55. Malaika, B. 1991, Modern Swahili –Modern English Arusha, Kase Stores. Marjie, S. 2010, ‘A study of English Items in Swahili-based Texts’, MPhil Thesis, University of Ghana, Accra. Miao, R. 2005, ‘Loanword Adaptation in Mandarin Chinese: Perceptual, Phonological and Sociolinguistic Factors’, P.h.D.Thesis, Brook University, Storny. Mohammed, M.A. 2001, Modern Swahili Grammar, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. Mwita, L. C. 2009, ‘The Adaptation of Swahili Loanwords From Arabic: A Constraint-Based Analysis’ Journal of Pan African Studies, 2 (8), 46-61. Mohideen, Shamimah Binti Haja 2006, A study of English loanwords in Selected Bahasa Melayu Newspaper Articles, Language in India vol 9, pp 1-205 April, 2009,<www.languagein india.com>. Myers-Scotton, Carol 2006, Multiple Voices, An Introduction to Bilingualism, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers. Petzell, Malin 2005, Expanding the Swahili Vocabulary. Africa and Asia 5, pp 85-107. Polome, E 1967, Swahili Language Handbook, Washington DC, Center for Applied Linguistics.
  • 8. New Media and Mass Communication www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3267 (Paper) ISSN 2224-3275 (Online) Vol.16, 2013 8 Poplack, Shana Sankoff, David and Miller, Christopher 1988, The Social Correlates and Linguistic Processes of Lexical Borrowing and Assimilation, Linguistics 26, pp 47-104. Tan, Siew Imm 2009, Lexical Borrowing in Malaysian English, Influences of Malay June, 2009.<screcherch.univ-lyon3.fr/lexis/IMG/pdf/lexis_3_Imm.pdf>. Wilson, Peter M 1983, Simplified Swahili, United Kingdom (2nd Edition), Longman Group. Winford, Deonald 2003, An Introduction to Contact Linguistics, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers. Yang Jian 2005, Lexical innovations in China English. World Englishes 24 Vol 4 , pp 425 – 436. Zuckermann,Ghil'ad 2009, Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns, Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2, pp 40-67. A Table of lexical contact phenomena (Winford 2003) Types Processes involved Examples I- Borrowing modeled on the donor language A. Loanwords: 1. “Pure”loanwords Total morphemic incorporation of single or compound words Varying degrees of phonemic substitution Possible semantic change Rendezvous Chinchibiri Dutch corner 2. loanblends Combination of native and imported morphemes 2a. Derivational blend Imported stem +native affix Native stem +imported affix PG bassig Eng. boss+Germ. ing Jap. inchigo-ed ‘strawberry’+- ade 2b compound blend Imported stem+ native stem PG blaumepie ‘Plum’ +pie B loanshifts (loan meanings 1 “Extensions” (semantic loans) Shift in the semantics of a native word under influence from a foreign word phonological resemblance partial semantic resemblance Am. Port. humoroso “humorous” Am. Port. frio “cold infection” 2 Loan translations (calques) Combination of native morphemes in imitation foreign pattern Germ. Wolkenkratzer cf. Eng. skyscraper II Native creations 1. Purely native creations Innovative use of native words to express foreign concepts Pima “wrinkled buttocks” for “elephant” 2 . Hybrid creations Blend of native and foreign morphemes to express foreign concepts Yaqui lios-nooka “pray” 3. creations using only foreign morphemes Combinations of foreign morphemes for new concepts Jap. wan-man-ka
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