Kota stone mining is a major industry in Rajasthan that provides flooring material. It requires significant amounts of land for both mining and waste storage. Current annual production of 55-60 lakh MT of stone requires around 100 hectares of primarily agricultural land. This land is almost completely destroyed and converted to waste land after mining. Restoring this land and reducing impacts on agriculture will require proactive measures. Solutions exist but require financial resources and coordinated action.

1. KOTA STONE MINING – SOME CRITICAL ASPECTS
A. Hussain
Kota stone mining and its dressing as value addition process is one of the major industry in Kota
and Jhalawar districts of Rajasthan. It is a minor mineral and covered under Rajasthan state
minor mineral concession rules and is used as a comparatively cheap flooring medium. The
present trend is to grant mining lease rights to the applicants for 4.0 Ha area under the state
mineral concessional rules. The stone deposits are more or less horizontal sedimentary layers
lying under variable thickness (10m to 30m) of overburden composed of different rock
combinations importantly, shale, high silicious non laminated lime stone, basalt or soil and subsoil
profiles. The ore winning technology is semi­mechanized involving waste removal by semi
mechanized affairs and stone by manual system in open pits.
In this article, we have tried to analyze the financial implications of the activity and its
counter effects on the current land use pattern. We have tried to focus on the measures very
necessary to restitute the balance for a sustainable, agrobased culture and mineral winning
activity.
Kota and Jhalawar districts of Rajasthan jointly have proven reserves of about 100 million tones
of acceptable quality of floor grade splittable lime stone, known widely as kota stone. Current
trend of yearly mining of 55 to 60 lakh MT stone requires about 100 hectares land, which is
primarily under agriculture providing biennial crops.
The present mining activities almost destroy the land and transform it into proven waste
land. This assessment do not cover the land which is blanketed with solid stone slurry released
from the stone cutting and polishing industries. Almost a sizable cultivatable land has been
sacrificed on the altar of mining industry and this process is still in force. This is a serious
environmental issue which need a specific and positive corrective action. Solutions are not
difficult and financial resources to carry out such restoration programmes are neither hard to be
located. A land bank comprising different restored areas can be built up and later on extended
to the original land owners in proportion to their land requisitioned for mining activity. Any such
action will reduce the pressure on land cost inter­alia help in bringing down the cost of
production and compensate the restoration costs born by the mine owners. The financial
analysis discussed here pertains to a typical mining, but stretching this canvas over other similar
mining activities is not an inhibition, except variation in dimensions.
Geology
Deposits located in Kota district are characterized by North West – South East trending strike
ridges and plateaus in the northern parts and broad open valley occupying the southern half
portion. The easterly flowing Amjar river along with its tributary nalas drain the southern portion
and consequent pattern is dendritic in the plain areas while it is sub trellis in the area occupied by
strike ridges. The climate is semi – arid with moderate annual rainfall. The temperature falls
below 100C in the winter while it reaches 450C in the summer.
Regional geology is given in following table

2. Period
1
Mesco to
NEO
Proterozoic
Geological
cycle
2
Vindhya
Supergroup
group
Sub group
Formation
3
4
5
Lower
Bhander
(Lakheri­Sing
oli;)
Limestone
formations
Ganurgarh
Shale
Formation
Upper rewa
(Taragarh
fort­umar)
sandstone
formation
Rewa Group
Kaimur
Group
Semi Group
Thiri
(Ratangarh)
Shale
Chittaurgarh
fort (Dickin)
Sand stone
formation
Suket Shale
Formation
Lithology
6
Limestone
(Dolomite)
Shale with
limestone
Bends
Quartzitic
sandstone
with gritty
and
conglomerate
bands
Shale with
limestone
Quartzitic
sandstone
Shale,
Limestone
interbeds
sandstone
The Vindhya Super group of meso to neo­proterozoic age, represented by its four group is
exposed in these areas. The oldest semri group is subdivided into the khorip sub group, and is
represented by the Suket shale formation, which is an assemblage of shale with interbands of
Limestone. The shale are fissile, soft and micaceous, thinly bedded to laminated.
The Suket shale is conformably overlain by Chitorgarh fort sandstone formation of the
Kaimur group. The Kaimur sandstone is dirty­white to brown with blotches of pink and
streakes of red, purple and grey quartzite sandstone and contains 90% detrittal quartz and in
general is fine grained, thinly to thickly bedded and massive.
The Rewa group is represented by the Jhiri shale (Ratangarh shale) and the upper Rewa
sandstone (Taragarh fort sandstone) formations, conformably overlies the Kaimur sandstone.
The Jhiri (Ratangarh Shale) is thinly bedded to laminate and splintery in nature and pale
yellow to Khaki green in color. It contains thin bands and lenses of clay and dolomitic limestone.
Limestone is often stromatolitic in pockets.
The Taragarh (upper Rewa) sandstone is coarse grained and conglomeratic at base. It
is a massive, quartzite sandstone containing more than 95 percent detrital quartz and is dirty

3. white light grey and pinkish in colour.
The assemblge conformable overlying the Rewa group is the Bhander group,
represented by the Ganurgarh shale, lower Bhander (Lakheri) Limestone, Lower Bhander
(bundi Hill) sandstone and the Sirbu shale formations.
The Ganuragarh shale is brick­red, purple to olive green, splintery, thinly bedded to
Laminated and is intercalated with bands of limestone. It shows sporadic mud cracks. The
Ganuragarh shale grades on to the lower Bhander Limestone which is generally ash­gray,
choclate, pink and reddish­brown, massive and non­crystalline rock and dolomitic in
composition.
The Lower Bhander sandstone (LBS) conformably overlies the lakheri limestone and
comprises three litho units in the area, namely lower sandstone, middle shale and upper
sandstone. The lower Bhander sandstone is ortho quartzite in nature with more than 95 percent
detrital quartz. A few grains of feldspar, chert, tourmaline, zircon and flakes of mica are present.
The shale is pale grey, olive green, brown and khaki, thinly bedded and inter ciliated with sand
stone and siltstone.
The youngest litho unit in the area is the shirbu shale overlying the lower Bhander
sandstone and occupies small area. It is a soft fissile, grayish brown and buff colour rock.
Bedding is well developed in all litho units and variety of sedimentary structures such as ripple
marks, parting lineation, sun cracks, load and flute cast and rain prints present in the rocks
suggest their deposition in a shallow marine basin under fluctuating conditions. The beds are
mostly horizontal with occasional rolls, a NW­SW trending axial trace of a major asymmetrical
anticline passes through the southern part of the area and closure of this fold is located 2 kms
northwest of Dippura in the toposheet No 45 P/9.
The Suket shales in the area are quarried, dressed, polished and sold as Kotastone for
flooring, vindhyan sandstone (LbS) is extensively quarried for construction material while the
lakheri limestone is and for lime burning.
Requirement of land for mining.
Kota stone production retains a direct relationship with surface land requirement function. An
area of 100’x100’ in kota district deposits is capable to yield about 12.0 lakh sq.ft. of Kota
stone slabes to 18.0 lakh sq.ft., and on average the yield comes to 16.0 lakh sq.ft. In case of
Jhalawar district the average yield for a similar area is about 13.0 lakh sq.ft. of Kota stone
slabes, considering non viability of top two sacks in the later case. Assuming a production mix in
the ratio of 40:60 between Kota district and Jhalawar based deposits, we may consider an
uniform yield of 15.0 lakh sq.ft. for 100’x100’ surface area.
Yearly requirement of land for annual Kota stone slabes production is given in Table – A.
Year
2006­07
2007­08
2008­09
Table A
Yearly surface land Requirement for Kota stone slabes production
Production of
Lakh Sq. Mtr.
Surface land
stabes in lakh MT
requirement (Hq.)
30
300
20
40
400
27
45
450
30

4. 2009­10
2010­11
2011­12
40
50
55
400
500
550
27
34
37
The land requirement is further compounded with additional requirements for waste storage
facilities. Considering a waste Dump, having the dimensions given in following figure­
Figure (Water Dump)
Dimensions given in figure and 380 angle of repose, the volume of the dump can be evaluated as
under.
Area of upper deck = w1 , l1
Area of bottom deck = w2, l2
Volume = H x l1w1 + l2w2
2
Height of Dump considering 380 angle of repose will be
H = 0.39 (D­W), where
D is the shorter base dimension, and
W is the shortest top width, normally 3.0 to 4.0 Mtrs., depending upon the width of trucks
engaged in waste movement.
We may roughly estimate the waste retention capacity for 1.0 Ha. Surface land of
rectangular formation having 1:1.5 ratio in its width and length. In such case the shorter
dimension will be 80.0 Mtrs, and the dump height would be H=0.39(D­3)=0.39(80­3)=30
Mtrs. This height will further reduce considering lowering of angle of repose during rainy season.
Apart from this, the capacity reduces considerably for waste dumps entirely composed of soil
and sub­soil, as is the case of many properties located in Jhalawar district. The maximum height
of waste dump on 1.0 Ha surface land may be considered to be 25.0 Mtr, taking into account
all these factors.
Where, as
l2, w2 = 10000 sq.mt.
l1, w1 = (120­2.6H) x W
= (120­2.6 x 25) x 3 sq.mt.
=165 sq. mtr.

5. Dump volume will be
25 x
165 + 10000 cu. mtr.
2
= 1,27,000 cu. mtr.
Yearly requirement of surface land for waste disposal for five years is given in table B
Table – B
Yearly surface land requirement for waste disposal
Year
Production of
Stripping
Volume of
Land
Kota stone ratio (M3 per
waste
requirement
sq. m)
disposal (lak
in Ha.
cu mtr.)
Mt. (in lakh) Sq. Mt. (in
lakh)
2006­07
30
300
0.25
45
35
2007­08
40
400
0.25
60
47
2008­09
45
450
0.25
68
53
2009­10
40
400
0.25
60
47
2010­11
50
500
0.25
75
59
2011­12
55
550
0.25
83
65
Table – C gives total annual land requirement to sustain production parameters.
year
2006­07
2007­08
2008­09
2009­10
2010­11
2011­12
Table – C
Kota stone production v/s land requirements
Production in
Land
Land
MT (in lakh)
requirement for requirement for
mining Ha.
waste disposal
Ha.
30
20
35
40
27
47
45
30
53
40
27
47
50
34
59
55
37
65
Total land
requirement Ha.
55
74
83
74
93
102
Land value and cost of land
The current land use pattern around Kota stone deposits in Kota as well as Jhalawar districts of
Rajasthan is agriculture and from crops farming point the Black Cotton soil is highly productive
subject to availability of irrigation sources. Presently these areas are not connected with
irrigation networks and therefore, agriculture is rain fed. The dominant crops during Kharif
season are Soyabean, Maze and Sorghum, while Rabi carries coriander (Dhaniya), Mustared
and wheat. During Kharif season 85 percent cultivation is of Soyabean and Rabi is equally

6. divided for coriander and mustard cultivation. The productivity of crops per hectare land and its
value from the current year marketing prices is given in Table –D.
Table – D
Crops pattern and value of crops. (per Ha. cultivable land)
crops
Production in MT/Ha. land Value of crops as per current
Market prices
Soyabean
24.0 Kwtl
Rs. 3500/kwtl (Rs. 84000)
Dhania
24.0 kwtl
Rs. 4000/kwtl (Rs. 96000)
Mustard
50.0 kwtl
Rs. 3500/kwtl (Rs. 175000)
Total for both crops
75.0 kwtl
Rs. 2,71,000/­
With the loss of cultivatable land every year, there is a loss of agricultureal output, and its
cumulative effect becomes a substantive loss to local agro­based economy. Economical losses
in the agricultural sector due to land use pattern shifting are shown in table – E.
Table – E
Loss of Agriculture due to shift in Land use pattern
Year
Land shifted from agriculture Loss of agriculture in Rs.
to mining works in Ha.
2,71,000/Ha.
55.0
1,49,05,000
74.0
2,00,54,000
83.0
2,24,93,000
74.0
2,00,54,000
93.0
2,52,03,000
102.0
2,76,42,000
2006­07
2007­08
2008­09
2009­10
2010­11
2011­12
Another important aspect of this pattern change is convertion of farming category employment
into a mining category as semi­skilled or non­skilled mine worker. The farmers and their family
members, who sold their land to mine­owners, become ousted from their properties and
rehabilitated as working hands in the mines, purchasing their lands.
Considering the average JOT (Agricultured land per khata holder) is 6 Bigas (1.0 Ha), and each
family consists of atleast four working members, the loss of land and unemployment of working
adults is given in table – F.
Year
2006­07
2007­08
2008­09
2009­10
Table – F
Loss of farming land Families Displaced
in Ha.
from farming
55
74
83
74
55
74
83
74
Working hands
becoming
unemployed in
farming sector
220
296
332
296

7. 2010­11
2011­12
93
102
93
102
372
408
Farming displacement and mining rehabilitation scenario –
Most of the land owners adopt mining works after disposing off their prime agricultural lands,
where they are paid as per applicable piece rates compatible with minimum wages put into force
by central ministry of labour from time to time.
Table – G, shows the extent of miner’s employment (Excluding services, administrative and
other categories) for the Kota stone mines, presently in operation in Kota and Jhalawar districts.
Year
2006­07
2007­08
2008­09
2009­10
2010­11
2011­12
Table – G
Employment of Miners in Kota Stone Mining works
Production in
Employment
MT.
Unskilled
Semi­skilled
category
category
30,00,000
3000
7,50,000
40,00,000
4000
10,00,000
45,00,000
4500
11,25,000
40,00,000
4000
10,00,000
50,00,000
5000
12,50,000
55,00,000
5500
13,75,000
Total
7,53,000
10,04,000
11,29,500
10,04,000
12,55,000
13,80,500
The applicable wages structure for different categories of workmen employed in the mines, is
given in Table – H.
Date
01­04­2010
01­04­2011
01­10­2011
01­04­2012
01­10­2012
01­04­2013
Table – H
(Applicable Minimum wages)
Minimum wages rate
(Rs/day)
Unskilled category
Semi­skilled category
186
224
205
247
212
256
223
270
231
279
236
285
Skilled category
265
287
297
313
324
324
Before making a comparision of gains and losses in the individual farmer’s income post disposal
of his agricultural land, it is worthwhile to take a stock of his agricultural income, before land
sale out.
Table – I shows the yearly income of a single farm khata holding family of four working
members, which comes to­

8. Corriander
Mustard
Total value
Table ­ I
24 kwtls x Rs. 4000/kwtl
50 kwtls x Rs. 3500/kwtl
2,71,000/­
This income, after making deductions for seeds, ploughing and other incidental expenses (other
than labour wages) becomes, Rs. 2.00 lakhs, but to some extent the deductions are
compensaled by the sales of fodder, stalks etc. However, the total period for which the
employment is kept in force is only six months (Three months effective period for each farming
session) the total man power engagement would be about 200 working days (800 Man days),
and accordingly the wages per Man day comes to Rs. 260/­ day. The family members are free
to work for other remunerative jobs after inputing 200 working days into farming works, where
the monetary gains will be in addition to farming income.
The analysis shows that after disposing his cultivatable land, farmer does not make any gains as
far as monetary levels are concerned. The king of land becomes a begger after disposing off his
land, and his status from farmer has been brought down to land less labourer and once the
mining work is over, he does not have any place to work and in all probability will become a
riksha puller in the nearby town or city to feed his family.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mining Cost
Kota stone mining is a semi­mechanized operation, whereas removal of overburden is carried
out by mechanized means, employing medium size hydraulic excavators and tippers. Soil and
sub­soil are removed without resorting to Drilling blasting and underlying hard overburden is
drilled – Blasted. Mining cost can be classified into five sub­heads.
Land cost
Development cost
Cost of channel making, Dressing of slabes, stacking, loading of finished material into tippers
and their unloading into stock yards.
Stock yard maintenance.
Dewatering and other over­head expenses
Royalty
1. Land cost
As mentioned earlier, prime farming land is purchased from farmers for mining and waste –
disposal. The current land prices, as applicable in Kota and Jhalawar districts are given in
table – J.
Table – J
Current Land purchase prices.
Distt. Kota
Distt. Jhalawar
Rs. 24.0 lakhs/Ha.
Rs. 60.0 lakhs/Ha.
Mine owners in case of Jhalawar deposits are prepared to pay substantirely more in
comparasion to Kota deposits, because of soft overburden which does not require Drilling.

9. Blasting. As discussed earlier the surface area of 100’x100’ will generate about 15 lakh
sqft. Kota stone slabes. For all purposes we may consider weight of 15 lakh sqft. Stone as
15000 MT.
On this scale an area of 1.0 Ha. surface land will lead to 1,50,000 MT or 15.0 lakh sq. mtr
stone. To win this quantity of lime stone, on an average 2.50 lakh cu Mtr. Overburden of
different nature has to be removed and stacked into waste dumps.
To win 1,50,000 MT lime stone, the cost of land will be as under.
S.No.
1.
2.
Objective
Mining
Waste Disposal
Total
Required Land
(Ha.)
1.0
2.0
3.0
Cost of Land
(Rs. In Lakh)
Kota Distt.
24.00
48.00
72.00
Jhalawar Distt.
60.00
120.00
180.00
The mine owner has to purchase land for mining, at the first stage of mining activity.
2. Development Cost –
Development phase of mining include removal of overburden and its final disposal into waste
banks. This activity requires drilling and blasting in Kota district deposits, while Jhalawar district
deposits almost do not need blasting, or to a negligible status.
The current cost of Drilling and Blasting is Rs. 20/cu. Mtr (Rs. 8/MT) excavation cost in relation
to prevailing diesel prices is given in Table K.
Year
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
Table – K
Cost of Excavation
HSD Rates Rs/LT
Cost of waste loading
(Averages)
and Transportatic
Rs/Cu.M
51.00
65.00
44.00
60.00
41.50
58.00
38.00
50.00
38.00
50.00
35.00
48.00
32.00
45.00
31.00
45.00
29.00
45.00
25.00
40.00
21.00
40.00
Cost of O/B Removal
Rs/Cu.M
85.00
80.00
76.00
65.00
65.00
63.00
60.00
60.00
60.00
55.00
55.00

10. Cost of Development for 1.0 Ha. Area for Kota and Jhalawar districts are given in the following
Table L.
S.No.
1.
2.
Activity
Table – L
Rates Rs/M3
Drilling ­ Blasting20.00
Excavation
85.00
Total
105.00
Total Cost of
Excavation (2.5
Lakh Mtr) (Rs in
Lakhs)
Kota
Jhalawar
46.00
­
212.50
212.50
258.50
212.50
In Kota District deposits, soil/subsoil segment of 25000 Cu Mtr (Average thickness 2.5 Mtr)
do not require Drilling – Blasting and therefore has been curtailed from total waste quantity of
2.50 lakh Cu. Mtr. For drilling blasting expenses application. The extra cost of Rs. 46.00 lakhs
in cost of Kota district deposits are partly compensated by lower cost of land.
The present trend in some of the mines is to straight – away sell part or fully developed areas.
3. Cost of channel cutting, dressing of slabs, loading and transportation of finished
material to the stockyards.
Kota stone exposed surfaces are given 15 cms to 20 cms deep cuts at the intervals of 60 cms
with the help of electric disc cutters, Semi­skilled workmen are engaged to cut, dress and stack
different size stone slabes in the pit floor, from where slabes are loaded into trucks and
transported to the surface stockyards.
The present cost of this activity is Rs. 5.50 per sqft of the readily salable product, and in terms
of weight will be Rs. 550/ MT. (Rs 55 per sq. mtr.)
4. Stock Management
Various works including stacking, sizing, and other allied chores carried out in surface
stockyard cost about Rs. 60/MT
5. Royalty
State charges Rs 100 per MT as royalty over the dispatches.
6. Misc Expenses
Mine owner bear about Rs. 30 to 35 MT for dewatering, misc. expenses.
The total cost of mining 1.0 Ha. Area, generating 150000 MT (15.0 lakh sq. mtr) Kota stone at
the prices given in this head would be as under

11. S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table – M
Mining cost
Description
Cost in Lakh Rupees
Kota Distt.
Land Cost
72.00
Dev. Cost
258.50
Channel cutting etc. 825.00
Stock, Management 90.00
Royalty
150.00
Misc.
45.00
Total
1440.50
Jhalawar Distt.
180.00
212.50
825.00
90.00
450.00
45.00
1502.50
This actual cost is to be added further towards interest on the capital and necessary surplus.
The average current sale price is Rs. 1600/MT and total revenue generation out of 1.0 Ha.
Enterprise would be 2400 lakhs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
WHO GETS WHAT
The owner purchases 1.0 Ha land for mining after investing 24.0 lakhs (Kota District) or 60
lakhs (Jhalawar District) respectively and mines out 1,50,000 MT of Kota stone at an
expenditure of 1500 lakhs in a period of one or two years and obtains 900 lakhs out of this
enterprise as gross surplus. This is a surplus after clearing govt. taxes, royalty, labour payment
and other expenses but do not include provisions for interest on capital, risk management,
insurance etc. A summary profit and loss account of 1.0 Ha mining operation in terms of
financial implications would be somewhat as under –
Owner receives gross amount of 900 laks after making an expenditure of 1500 lakhs in one or
two years perioed.
State earns 150 lakhs as royalty
Workmen earns 130 lakhs for their workmanship.
Loss of agriculture land is 3.0 Ha.
Loss of crops is Rs. 8.13 lakhs per year on sustained basis.
This clearly shows that the maximum gains received out of this enterprise is the mine owning
company, who receives about 40% of the value of the deposit laid down under mining operation
and the worst looser is the land owner, who has changed his occupation and earned the same
wages, which he used to earn before land ownership changed hands. In this bargain he lost
valuable land providing earnings on sustainable basis, and opted a miner’s job with uncertain
future.
What should be done.
The scenario as highlighted can’t be called a likable sequence of events. What needed is to
compensate the land owner for his permanent losses by providing properly restored mined out
areas with adequate soil – sob soil blanketing over the fills and irrigation facilities extended from
the mind out areas water resources. This is not difficult and can be achieved by resorting to an

12. eco friendly mining sequence accommodating proper stripping, banking and reuse of soil –
subsoil, planned waste disposal, and utilizing quarry water for irrigation through pipes and
channel networks. The owning company should bear the cost of this activity, out of their margins
and thus help the Ex. Land owner to achieve a part of his sustainable income, which was lost in
the first stage of mining sequence.
A. Hussain