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Fundamentals of Host Defense and
Innate Immunity
 Robert V. House, PhD
            p                    propery    y
 Note: This presentation is the p p y of DynPort Vaccine Company LLC, a CSC company,
                                                                 p y      ,    p y,
 and may not be reproduced i any f
   d         tb       d     d in     form without express written consent
                                           ith t            itt         t




                                                                                       1
Introduction
• Host defense (maintenance of identity) is a common feature
  of all metazoan animals; thus the need for an evolutionarily
  conserved system of humoral and cellular elements
  dedicated to this goal
• Immune system of vertebrates is highly complex, but lower
  animals exhibit remarkable abilities nonetheless
• Innate (or “natural”) immunity has historically been seen as
  i f i to adaptive – this i patently i
  inferior    d i         hi is      l incorrect as new d data
  are clearly demonstrating
• Innate immunity is not a discrete entity, but rather part of a
  larger continuum – a collection of integrated systems




                                                                   2
First-line host defense
• Physical and chemical defenses
  – Skin (barrier function)
  – Respiratory system - coughing, sneezing, elevation in body
    temperature (also adjunct to mucosal immunity)
  – Digestive tract - pH; microorganisms in the intestines
• Inflammatory response
• Cellular defenses
  – Not strictly antigen-specific; relies on markers of pathogenicity
    (e.g., TLR) and tissue damage
  – Memory response is not invoked
  – Cellular elements include dendritic cells, granulocytes,
    macrophages, and NK cells




                                                                        3
The inflammatory response
• Immediate danger signal following breach of the physical
  barrier
   – Interaction of pathogens with plasma molecules
   – Induction of tissue damage and release of mediators
   – DNA damage appears to be an important trigger
• Potentially dangerous to the host due to the vigor and
  magnitude of the immediate response (tight control crucial)
• Immediate responses include:
   – Vasodilation
   – Vascular permeability
   – Neutrophil recruitment and activation
   – Fever

        Rubor et turgor, cum calor et dolor
        (Redness and swelling with heat and pain)
                                                                4
Soluble mediators of inflammation
• Plasma proteases
   – Complement
      • 30 serum proteins acting in a sequential manner
      • Function to modify membranes of infectious agents (proteases)
        and promote th i fl
          d        t the inflammatory response
                                  t
      • Two pathways – one for innate and one for adaptive immunity
   – Kinens
   – Clotting and fibrinolytic proteins
• Lipid mediators
   – Prostaglandins
   – Leukotrienes
   – Platelet-activating factor
• Peptides and amines
   – Histamine and serotonin
   – Neuropeptides
   – Nitric oxide
                                                                        5
Soluble mediators of inflammation
• Acute phase reactants synthesized by hepatocytes: serum
  Acute-phase
  amyloid A, serum amyloid P, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen
   – Involved in opsonization
   – Bind bacteria to facilitate complement binding resulting in
                                            binding,
     uptake by phagocytic cells
• Proinflammatory cytokines
   – Too many to list!
   – A major initiator of both innate immunity and transition to
     adaptive immunity
   – This is arguably the key immunoregulatory subsystem




                                                                   6
Recognition by innate immune response
• Recognition occurs via two mechanisms:
   – Microbial non-self
   – Missing self
• Mi bi l non-self depends on the presence of molecular
  Microbial         lf d   d      th             f    l    l
  structures that are unique to microorganisms (pathogen-
  associated molecular patterns, PAMPs)
• PAMPs are recognized by pattern recognition receptors
  (PRRs)
• Missing self depends on recognition of molecular structures
  that are expressed only on healthy cells of the host (
             p           y           y                  (lost on
  damage or infection)
• Recognition of missing self is important in NK cell function




                                                                   7
Pattern recognition receptors – three basic types
1.
1 PRRs that signal the presence of infection
  – Associated with cell surface or intracellularly
  – Engagement leads to activation of proinflammatory mediators
    including antimicrobial peptides and cytokines
2. Phagocytic PRRs
  – Engagement leads to phagocytosis by macrophages,
    dendritic cells and others
3. Secreted PRRs
  – Activate complement
  – Opsonization
  – Act as accessory molecules for other PRRs




                                                                  8
The Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) system
• Example of PRR signaling the presence of an infection
• Plasma membrane-associated proteins with extracellular
  domains
• Highly conserved evolutionarily
  – Originally discovered in fruit flies
  – Appear to have both structural and defense roles
• Si
  Signaling t d t i d
       li tends to induce a TH1 t
                            TH1-type immune response
                                     i




                                                           9
Triggers for TLRs
               TLR                          Natural Li
                                            N t   l Ligand
                                                         d
TLR1 (with TLR2)                    Bacterial triaceyl lipopeptides;
                                    parasite proteins
TLR2 (with TLR6)                    Bacterial diacyl lipopeptides;
                                    lipoteichoic acid; zymosan
TLR3                                DS viral RNA
TLR4                                Gram-negative endotoxin
                                             g
TLR5                                Flagellin
TLR7                                SS viral RNA
TLR8 (inactive in mice)             Same as TLR7
TLR9                                CpG
TLR10 (present in mice, inactive)   Unknown
TLR11 (mice; form in human is       Profilin (from T. gondii)
truncated and assumed inactive)
TLR12/TLR13 (mice, not human)       Unknown
                                                                       10
Therapeutic manipulation of TLRs
• Nonspecific induction of innate immunity particularly
                                  immunity,
  mucosal
   – May hold great promise in biodefense and protection against
     rapidly evolving infectious “events”
       p y          g
• Vaccine adjuvants




                                                                   11
Adjuvants that act via TLRs

        TRL ENGAGED                      LIGANDS                     ADJUVANTS
      TLR1/TLR2                   Triacyl lipopeptides   Pam3Cys
      TLR2/TLR6                   Di            tid
                                       l lipopeptides
                                  Diacyl li              MALP-2; Pam2Cys
                                                         MALP 2 P 2C
      TLR2                        Peptidoglycan          Neisserial porins; BCG; CFA
      TLR3                        Double-stranded RNA    Poly I:C
                                                            y
      TLR4                        LPS                    MPL A; BCG; CFA; LPS analogs

      TLR5                        Flagellin              Flagellin
      TLR7/8                      Single-stranded RNA    Imiquimod; Resiquimod (synthetic
                                                         TLR agonists)
      TLR9                        Bacterial/viral DNA    CpG ODN



Modified from Duin et al., 2005
                                                                                            12
What goes up…
• TRL modulation may be targeted toward
  immunosuppression, as well as immunostimulation
   – Allergy: binding of TLR9 agonist to an allergen can result in the
     destruction of CD4 T-cells with allergen specificity ( y
                                          g    p        y (Dynavax))
   – Autoimmunity: inactivation of TLR5 modulates lupus
   – Sepsis: Eritoran (Eisai) binds to TLR4 without activating it
• TLRs appear to have a role in p aque formation, so t e
      s appea     a e o e plaque o at o ,             their
  modulation may have applicability to treating cardiac
  disease




                                                                         13
Plasma
                                                                                                   Cell     Antibody Production
           Maturation In Bone Marrow
             B                                                                                             Antigen Presentation
                            Pro                 Pre            Pre            Immature            Mature
           Stem
                           B-Cell               B-I            B-II             B-Cell            B-Cell     Limited Cytokine
           Cell
                                                                                                                Production

                                                      Antigen IL-10     Tr1         IL-10          HELP

           Maturation In Thymus                                                                            Resistance to Parasites
                                                                                         Th2      IL-4
                                                                IL-4
                                    αβ                 CD4+                                       IL-10       Allergic Disease
              T-Cell
                                  T-Cell                Th0
                                                                                                           Resistance to Infection
                                                                                         Th1      IL-2
                                           Accessory                                              IFN-γ    Autoimmune Disease
                         γδ                   Cell
                       T-Cell
                                                                              Th3
                                                                                                 HELP


                                                                        TGF-β
                                                                                         Tc1      IFN-γ          Cytotoxicity

                                                       CD8+


                                           Switches
                                                                                         Tc2
                                                                                                  IL-4     Suppressor Function?
                                NK T       response from NK
                                           to TC                       IL-12
          Lymphoid                             NK Cell                                                       Innate Cytotoxicity
                                                                                       NK Cell
 Bone     Precursor                           Precursor
                                                                                                             Immunoregulation
Marrow
   Stem                                                                                                     Antigen Presentation
   Cell                                                                                                      Immunoregulation
                                                                                Dendritic Cell

           Myeloid                                                                                             Phagocytosis
                                                                                                               Ph     t i
                                             Monocyte
          Precursor                                                                                         Antigen Processing/
                                                                                    Macrophage                  Presentation
                                                                                                                Inflammation
                                                                                                                Host Defense
                                                                                Granulocytes                       Allergy           14
The macrophage and its kin
• Primary cell of the innate immune system
• Monocytes circulate about one day then terminally differentiate into
  macrophages
• Play important roles in both innate and acquired immunity
• Activated by cytokines to be more effective killers
• Produce immunoregulatory cytokines
• Numerous non-immune housekeeping functions
• Macrophages - terminally differentiated monocytes
   – Kupffer cells - liver
        p
   – Alveolar Macrophages – lung
   – Splenic Macrophages
   – Microglia - CNS
          g



                                                                         15
The granulocytes
• Primary defense against infectious agents
   – Defect of these cells (e.g., Chronic Granulomatous Disease) is
     associated with increased rate of infection with bacteria and
     fungi
• Pass through cell membrane of blood vessels
• Phagocytic activity enhanced by complement and
  antibodies on the surface of targets
• Involved in induction of the inflammatory response
• Multiple cell types
   – Neutrophils
   – Basophils
   – Eosinophils




                                                                      16
Neutrophils
• Short lived (about 24 48 hours)
  Short-lived         24-48
• Live in circulation and are recruited to sites of infection (not
  tissue resident)
• Phagocytic and microbicidal
• Capable of both extracellular and extracellular killing
   – Granules released into extracellular environment
   – Reactive proteins released into the phagolysosome




                                                                     17
Basophils
• Found primarily in connective and mucosal tissue
• Phagocytic
• Secrete inflammatory mediators important in leukocyte
  (neutrophil) recruitment
• Produce cytokines, mostly Type II cytokines




                                                          18
Eosinophils
• Occur primarily in respiratory intestinal and genitourinary
                     respiratory,
  tracts
• Highly granular; granules contain cationic effector proteins
• Produce cytokines and lipid mediators
• Poorly phagocytic; release granular contents into the
  extracellular space
•AAppear t have evolved as an antiparasitic d f
          to h         l d          ti      iti defense
  mechanism




                                                                 19
Dendritic cells
• Found primarily in peripheral tissue
• Best known for their role in the induction of adaptive
  immunity, but are capable of direct antimicrobial activity as
  well




                                                                  20
The natural killer (NK) cell
• Granule containing non T/non B lymphocytes
  Granule-containing, non-T/non-B
• Surface receptors recognize:
   – Tumor cells
   – Virally infected cells
               f
   – Monocytes infected with bacteria
   – Fc portion of IgG on an Ab-coated target cell
• NK cell undergoes cytoplasmic reorientation
   – Cytolytic granules localize near the target cell
   – Induce apoptosis of the target cell
• Appears to be a key cytokine-producing immunoregulatory
  cell, particularly IFN-γ




                                                            21
Virus-Infected Cells                                                    NK cells
    Decreased Viral Growth                                                  Increased Activity
                                                                                             y




T-cells                                 Interferon-γ                    Macrophages
                                                                        Enhanced MHC expression
Induction of IL-2 and IL-2R
Changes in delayed hypersensitivity
     g           y     yp         y                                     Enhanced antimicrobial activity
Changes in graft rejection                                              Increased antitumor activity
Enhanced suppressor cell activity                                       Increased TNFα synthesis
Enhanced cytotoxicity                                                   Increased FcУR expression
                                                                        Migration Inhibition


                                      B-Cells
                                      Altered IgG subclass production
                                      Decreased CD23 expression
                                      Decreased proliferation
                                      Decreased IgE production
                                      Counteracts effects of IL-4

                                                                                                          22
NKT cells
•   T-lymphocytes
    T lymphocytes that express NK cell related receptors
                                     cell-related
•   Found in very small numbers (0.2% of total T-cell repertoire)
•   Secrete large amounts of IFN-γ and IL-4
•   Appear to have significant immunoregulatory function
•   May not be directly activated by pathogens, but is activated
    by IL-12 secreted by dendritic cells following PAMP/PRR
    interaction; th serve as a crucial li k b t
    i t    ti    thus               i l link between i
                                                     innate and
                                                         t     d
    adaptive immunity




                                                                    23
Biochemical effectors of innate immunity
•   Lysozyme
•   Chitinase
•   Phospholipase A2
•   Bactericidal permeability-increasing protein (BPI)
•   Cathelicidins
•   Serprocedins
       p
•   Lactoferrin and calprotectin
•   Defensins




                                         Good for frogs, good for us

                                                                       24
The interferons
• Type I
   – IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-ω and IFN-τ
   – Production triggered by engagement of certain PRRs
   – St
     Strong antiviral activity via i d ti of M A M B and GBP proteins
              ti i l ti it i induction f Mx-A, Mx-B d           t i
   – Modest immunoregulatory activity
• Type II
   – IFN-γ
   – Primarily immunoregulatory cytokine involved in adaptive immunity
     and serving as a principal bridge between innate and adaptive
   – Distinct from Type I in multiple attributes
• Type III
   – IFN-λ1 (IL-29), IFN-λ2 (IL-28A) and IFN-λ3 (IL-28B)
   –RRecently d     ib d
           tl described, acceptance not yet universal
                                t       t t i        l


                                                                         25
Regulation of the early innate immune response
• Innate immunity (as well as adaptive immunity) is controlled by the
  nervous and endocrine systems in a dynamic feedback loop
  mechanism
• Major system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPA) axis
                      hypothalamic pituitary gonadal
• Early manifestations of inflammation result from neural triggers
• HPA interactions are key in development and maintenance of
  inflammation




                                                                        26
Assessing innate immune function
• Historically innate immune function has received far less
  Historically,
  attention as a target for toxic insult than adaptive immune
  function
   – Innate immunity was perceived as “primitive” and thus less
                     y     p              p
     important in long-lasting and specific host defense
• Recent work has clearly demonstrated that innate immunity
  is a key regulator not only of initial host protection, but the
  development (and perhaps maintenance) of specific
  immunity
• Innate immune function defects (primarily NK cell function)
  correlate with immune deficits, so we know it’s “important”
                                                  it s important




                                                                    27
Assessing innate immune function
• Increasing understanding of the complexity of this
  “subsystem” presents enormous challenges and
  opportunities for understanding both deliberate and
  unintentional immunomodulation
• Interpretation of results perhaps more difficult than we first
  imagined:
   – Decreased/altered function generally assumed to be
     deleterious only until th adaptive response t k over,
     d l t i       l    til the d ti              took
     however…
   – Current recognition of the key regulatory function of the innate
     response may represent an unexpected diversity of targets
   – What happens when innate immune function is increased?
      • Inflammation is a dangerous tool
      • Global dysregulation of the immune continuum?




                                                                        28
Assessing innate immune function
• Functional (cellular) assays are available to measure:
   – NK cell function
   – Macrophage activity
   –G      l    t
     Granulocyte activity (very seldom used…damage or
                     ti it (      ld        d d
     dysregulation probably indicative of a more significant toxicity)
• Next frontier in immunotoxicology may be understanding the
  key role o TLRs a d how t e regulation/dysregulation
   ey o e of       s and o their egu at o /dys egu at o
  affects the entire immune response
   – Negative regulation of this subsystem increasingly understood
     to result in conditions such as inappropriate inflammatory
     response and other immune mediated diseases
                           immune-mediated
   – Future therapeutic modulation of the immune response via this
     subsystem will present significant challenges for safety
     assessment
   – Adequate assays not currently in place


                                                                         29
Assessing NK cell function
• Traditional model has been the radiolabel release (in vitro)
  assay
   – Based on short-term destruction of tumor target cells (“missing
     self”) by homogeneous leukocyte p p
          ) y      g              y preparation containing NKg
     cells
   – Advantages:
      • Relatively simple to perform for appropriately equipped laboratories
      • Q i k read-out
        Quick     d t
   – Disadvantages:
      • Requires the use of radioisotopes
      • Labor and material-intensive
        Labor-     material intensive
• Other models are increasingly being used, but are generally
  variants on this theme using alternative reporter systems
  (
  (enzymatic, flow cytometric, etc.)
       y             y             )


                                                                               30
In vitro assessment of NK cell function
                          Expose Animals




                                         Remove Spleen




Radiolabeled 51Cr YAC-1                             Single-Cell Splenocyte
      Tumor Cells                                        Preparation

         * *
        * *


                           *     4 hr.
                                                    *      Count
                                                           Co nt Released
                          * *                   *            Radiolabel
                                            *
                                                                             31
Macrophage function assays
• Not routinely used as part of immunotoxicology screening
  (Tier I-type) assessments, and rarely used even in
  mechanistic (Tier II-type)
   – Very labor-intensive
         y
   – Requires finesse
   – Useful mainly for detailed studies on agents suspected of
     acting on these cells
• Representative assays
   – Phagocytosis
   – Microbial/tumor destruction
   – Respiratory burst
   – Cytokine production




                                                                 32
Acquired (Adaptive) immunity
•SSpecificity - specific i
      ifi it        ifi immune response t i f ti
                                         to infectious agent
                                                           t
• Memory – protection from future infection
   – Specific memory cells remain in circulation
   – Antigen sequestration – chronic stimulation
• Humoral immunity - host response to soluble antigens
• Cell mediated immunity (CMI): host response to intracellular
  antigens

• Elements of the front-line defense (primarily macrophages
  and dendritic cells) and innate immunity (NK cells) continue
  to operate; there is not a clear line of demarcation
  separating innate from adaptive



                                                                 33
Comparison of innate and adaptive immunity
                INNATE                                       ADAPTIVE
Targets are recognized by receptors        Targets are recognized by receptors generated
encoded by the germline                    by genetic rearrangement
Receptors have relatively broad            Epitope recognition is highly specific
specificity (PAMPs)
PAMPs are generally polysaccharides        Epitopes are generally highly specific
and polynucleotides; limited specificity   polypeptides
between pathogens
Receptors are PAMPs                        Receptors are T-cell receptor and B- cell
                                           receptor/Ig
Immediate response                         Delayed response due to need for clonal
                                           expansion
No memory                                  Long memory

Metazoans                                  Vertebrates




                                                                                           34
Transition of innate to adaptive immunity
• Recognition of PAMPs induces inflammation through
  macrophages and endothelial cells
• Recognition of PAMPs leads to dendritic cell maturation and
  increase in expression of MHC II and accessory molecules
• Induction of innate immune response triggers release of
  cytokines that control subsequent immune responses,
  particularly IL-12
• Cytokines induced in the early stages of innate immunity
  operate at many subsequent stages of this transition
  process



Far from being a “primitive” mechanism, innate immunity is the key bridge
    between front-line host defense and the adaptive immune response
    b t     f   t li h t d f          d th d ti i



                                                                            35
Plasma
                                                                                                                      Cell     Antibody Production
                                           Maturation In Bone Marrow
                                            B                                                                                 Antigen Presentation
                                                         Pro               Pre          Pre       Immature          Mature
                                          Stem
                                                        B-Cell             B-I          B-II        B-Cell          B-Cell      Limited Cytokine
                                          Cell
                                                                                                                                   Production

                                                                           Antigen IL-10        Tr1     IL-10          HELP

                                           Maturation In Thymus                                                               Resistance to Parasites
                                                                                                            Th2      IL-4
                                                                                         IL-4
                                                                 αβ              CD4+                                IL-10       Allergic Disease
Damage to any component of                  T-Cell
                                                               T-Cell             Th0
                                                                                                                              Resistance to Infection
th innate immune apparatus
the i    t i                t                                                                               Th1      IL-2
                                                                     Accessory                                       IFN-γ    Autoimmune Disease
can have potentially                                   γδ               Cell
                                                     T-Cell                                                         HELP
significant ramifications due                                                                     Th3

to the pivotal role this system                                                                  TGF-β
has i        l ti    f th
h in regulation of the                                                                                      Tc1      IFN-γ          Cytotoxicity

overall immune response.                                                         CD8+


                                                                        Switches
                                                                                                            Tc2
                                                                                                                     IL-4     Suppressor Function?
                                                               *
                                                              NK T      response from
                                                                        NK to TC                IL-12


                               Bone
                                         Lymphoid
                                         Precursor
                                                                          NK Cell
                                                                         Precursor
                                                                                                            *
                                                                                                          NK Cell
                                                                                                                                Innate Cytotoxicity
                                                                                                                                Immunoregulation
                              Marrow
                                  Stem
                                  Cell                                                                      *                  Antigen Presentation
                                                                                                                                Immunoregulation
                                                                                                      Dendritic Cell
                                                                                                                                  Phagocytosis
                                                                                                                                  Ph     t i
                                          Myeloid
                                         Precursor
                                                                         Monocyte
                                                                                                           *
                                                                                                      Macrophage
                                                                                                                               Antigen Processing/
                                                                                                                                   Presentation
                                                                                                                                   Inflammation
                                                                                                                                   Host Defense
                                                                                                      Granulocytes                    Allergy           36
Continuum of host defense

FRONT-LINE DEFENSE          INNATE IMMUNITY              ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

•MACROPHAGES                •NK CELLS                    •T-LYMPHOCYTES (CD 4/8)
•GRANULOCYTES               •NKT CELLS                   •B-LYMPHOCYTES
•DENDRITIC CELLS            •DENDRITIC CELLS             •APC
•NONSPECIFIC HUMORAL


 INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
        IMMUNE-NEURAL-ENDOCRINE (HPA AXIS) CONTROL

                 CYTOKINES AND CHEMOKINES

                       TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS

     •RECOGNITION                                             •SPECIFICITY
     •EARLY CONTROL         •TRANSITION TO ADAPTIVE           •MEMORY
     •INDUCTION             •MATURATION AND REGULATION        •RECALL RESPONSE

                                                                                   37
Standard model of immunomodulation




Standard model makes it difficult to identify detailed targets
                                                                 38
Alternative model of immunomodulation




       Revised model makes target identification easier
                                                          39

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10884 2

  • 1. Fundamentals of Host Defense and Innate Immunity Robert V. House, PhD p propery y Note: This presentation is the p p y of DynPort Vaccine Company LLC, a CSC company, p y , p y, and may not be reproduced i any f d tb d d in form without express written consent ith t itt t 1
  • 2. Introduction • Host defense (maintenance of identity) is a common feature of all metazoan animals; thus the need for an evolutionarily conserved system of humoral and cellular elements dedicated to this goal • Immune system of vertebrates is highly complex, but lower animals exhibit remarkable abilities nonetheless • Innate (or “natural”) immunity has historically been seen as i f i to adaptive – this i patently i inferior d i hi is l incorrect as new d data are clearly demonstrating • Innate immunity is not a discrete entity, but rather part of a larger continuum – a collection of integrated systems 2
  • 3. First-line host defense • Physical and chemical defenses – Skin (barrier function) – Respiratory system - coughing, sneezing, elevation in body temperature (also adjunct to mucosal immunity) – Digestive tract - pH; microorganisms in the intestines • Inflammatory response • Cellular defenses – Not strictly antigen-specific; relies on markers of pathogenicity (e.g., TLR) and tissue damage – Memory response is not invoked – Cellular elements include dendritic cells, granulocytes, macrophages, and NK cells 3
  • 4. The inflammatory response • Immediate danger signal following breach of the physical barrier – Interaction of pathogens with plasma molecules – Induction of tissue damage and release of mediators – DNA damage appears to be an important trigger • Potentially dangerous to the host due to the vigor and magnitude of the immediate response (tight control crucial) • Immediate responses include: – Vasodilation – Vascular permeability – Neutrophil recruitment and activation – Fever Rubor et turgor, cum calor et dolor (Redness and swelling with heat and pain) 4
  • 5. Soluble mediators of inflammation • Plasma proteases – Complement • 30 serum proteins acting in a sequential manner • Function to modify membranes of infectious agents (proteases) and promote th i fl d t the inflammatory response t • Two pathways – one for innate and one for adaptive immunity – Kinens – Clotting and fibrinolytic proteins • Lipid mediators – Prostaglandins – Leukotrienes – Platelet-activating factor • Peptides and amines – Histamine and serotonin – Neuropeptides – Nitric oxide 5
  • 6. Soluble mediators of inflammation • Acute phase reactants synthesized by hepatocytes: serum Acute-phase amyloid A, serum amyloid P, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen – Involved in opsonization – Bind bacteria to facilitate complement binding resulting in binding, uptake by phagocytic cells • Proinflammatory cytokines – Too many to list! – A major initiator of both innate immunity and transition to adaptive immunity – This is arguably the key immunoregulatory subsystem 6
  • 7. Recognition by innate immune response • Recognition occurs via two mechanisms: – Microbial non-self – Missing self • Mi bi l non-self depends on the presence of molecular Microbial lf d d th f l l structures that are unique to microorganisms (pathogen- associated molecular patterns, PAMPs) • PAMPs are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) • Missing self depends on recognition of molecular structures that are expressed only on healthy cells of the host ( p y y (lost on damage or infection) • Recognition of missing self is important in NK cell function 7
  • 8. Pattern recognition receptors – three basic types 1. 1 PRRs that signal the presence of infection – Associated with cell surface or intracellularly – Engagement leads to activation of proinflammatory mediators including antimicrobial peptides and cytokines 2. Phagocytic PRRs – Engagement leads to phagocytosis by macrophages, dendritic cells and others 3. Secreted PRRs – Activate complement – Opsonization – Act as accessory molecules for other PRRs 8
  • 9. The Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) system • Example of PRR signaling the presence of an infection • Plasma membrane-associated proteins with extracellular domains • Highly conserved evolutionarily – Originally discovered in fruit flies – Appear to have both structural and defense roles • Si Signaling t d t i d li tends to induce a TH1 t TH1-type immune response i 9
  • 10. Triggers for TLRs TLR Natural Li N t l Ligand d TLR1 (with TLR2) Bacterial triaceyl lipopeptides; parasite proteins TLR2 (with TLR6) Bacterial diacyl lipopeptides; lipoteichoic acid; zymosan TLR3 DS viral RNA TLR4 Gram-negative endotoxin g TLR5 Flagellin TLR7 SS viral RNA TLR8 (inactive in mice) Same as TLR7 TLR9 CpG TLR10 (present in mice, inactive) Unknown TLR11 (mice; form in human is Profilin (from T. gondii) truncated and assumed inactive) TLR12/TLR13 (mice, not human) Unknown 10
  • 11. Therapeutic manipulation of TLRs • Nonspecific induction of innate immunity particularly immunity, mucosal – May hold great promise in biodefense and protection against rapidly evolving infectious “events” p y g • Vaccine adjuvants 11
  • 12. Adjuvants that act via TLRs TRL ENGAGED LIGANDS ADJUVANTS TLR1/TLR2 Triacyl lipopeptides Pam3Cys TLR2/TLR6 Di tid l lipopeptides Diacyl li MALP-2; Pam2Cys MALP 2 P 2C TLR2 Peptidoglycan Neisserial porins; BCG; CFA TLR3 Double-stranded RNA Poly I:C y TLR4 LPS MPL A; BCG; CFA; LPS analogs TLR5 Flagellin Flagellin TLR7/8 Single-stranded RNA Imiquimod; Resiquimod (synthetic TLR agonists) TLR9 Bacterial/viral DNA CpG ODN Modified from Duin et al., 2005 12
  • 13. What goes up… • TRL modulation may be targeted toward immunosuppression, as well as immunostimulation – Allergy: binding of TLR9 agonist to an allergen can result in the destruction of CD4 T-cells with allergen specificity ( y g p y (Dynavax)) – Autoimmunity: inactivation of TLR5 modulates lupus – Sepsis: Eritoran (Eisai) binds to TLR4 without activating it • TLRs appear to have a role in p aque formation, so t e s appea a e o e plaque o at o , their modulation may have applicability to treating cardiac disease 13
  • 14. Plasma Cell Antibody Production Maturation In Bone Marrow B Antigen Presentation Pro Pre Pre Immature Mature Stem B-Cell B-I B-II B-Cell B-Cell Limited Cytokine Cell Production Antigen IL-10 Tr1 IL-10 HELP Maturation In Thymus Resistance to Parasites Th2 IL-4 IL-4 αβ CD4+ IL-10 Allergic Disease T-Cell T-Cell Th0 Resistance to Infection Th1 IL-2 Accessory IFN-γ Autoimmune Disease γδ Cell T-Cell Th3 HELP TGF-β Tc1 IFN-γ Cytotoxicity CD8+ Switches Tc2 IL-4 Suppressor Function? NK T response from NK to TC IL-12 Lymphoid NK Cell Innate Cytotoxicity NK Cell Bone Precursor Precursor Immunoregulation Marrow Stem Antigen Presentation Cell Immunoregulation Dendritic Cell Myeloid Phagocytosis Ph t i Monocyte Precursor Antigen Processing/ Macrophage Presentation Inflammation Host Defense Granulocytes Allergy 14
  • 15. The macrophage and its kin • Primary cell of the innate immune system • Monocytes circulate about one day then terminally differentiate into macrophages • Play important roles in both innate and acquired immunity • Activated by cytokines to be more effective killers • Produce immunoregulatory cytokines • Numerous non-immune housekeeping functions • Macrophages - terminally differentiated monocytes – Kupffer cells - liver p – Alveolar Macrophages – lung – Splenic Macrophages – Microglia - CNS g 15
  • 16. The granulocytes • Primary defense against infectious agents – Defect of these cells (e.g., Chronic Granulomatous Disease) is associated with increased rate of infection with bacteria and fungi • Pass through cell membrane of blood vessels • Phagocytic activity enhanced by complement and antibodies on the surface of targets • Involved in induction of the inflammatory response • Multiple cell types – Neutrophils – Basophils – Eosinophils 16
  • 17. Neutrophils • Short lived (about 24 48 hours) Short-lived 24-48 • Live in circulation and are recruited to sites of infection (not tissue resident) • Phagocytic and microbicidal • Capable of both extracellular and extracellular killing – Granules released into extracellular environment – Reactive proteins released into the phagolysosome 17
  • 18. Basophils • Found primarily in connective and mucosal tissue • Phagocytic • Secrete inflammatory mediators important in leukocyte (neutrophil) recruitment • Produce cytokines, mostly Type II cytokines 18
  • 19. Eosinophils • Occur primarily in respiratory intestinal and genitourinary respiratory, tracts • Highly granular; granules contain cationic effector proteins • Produce cytokines and lipid mediators • Poorly phagocytic; release granular contents into the extracellular space •AAppear t have evolved as an antiparasitic d f to h l d ti iti defense mechanism 19
  • 20. Dendritic cells • Found primarily in peripheral tissue • Best known for their role in the induction of adaptive immunity, but are capable of direct antimicrobial activity as well 20
  • 21. The natural killer (NK) cell • Granule containing non T/non B lymphocytes Granule-containing, non-T/non-B • Surface receptors recognize: – Tumor cells – Virally infected cells f – Monocytes infected with bacteria – Fc portion of IgG on an Ab-coated target cell • NK cell undergoes cytoplasmic reorientation – Cytolytic granules localize near the target cell – Induce apoptosis of the target cell • Appears to be a key cytokine-producing immunoregulatory cell, particularly IFN-γ 21
  • 22. Virus-Infected Cells NK cells Decreased Viral Growth Increased Activity y T-cells Interferon-γ Macrophages Enhanced MHC expression Induction of IL-2 and IL-2R Changes in delayed hypersensitivity g y yp y Enhanced antimicrobial activity Changes in graft rejection Increased antitumor activity Enhanced suppressor cell activity Increased TNFα synthesis Enhanced cytotoxicity Increased FcУR expression Migration Inhibition B-Cells Altered IgG subclass production Decreased CD23 expression Decreased proliferation Decreased IgE production Counteracts effects of IL-4 22
  • 23. NKT cells • T-lymphocytes T lymphocytes that express NK cell related receptors cell-related • Found in very small numbers (0.2% of total T-cell repertoire) • Secrete large amounts of IFN-γ and IL-4 • Appear to have significant immunoregulatory function • May not be directly activated by pathogens, but is activated by IL-12 secreted by dendritic cells following PAMP/PRR interaction; th serve as a crucial li k b t i t ti thus i l link between i innate and t d adaptive immunity 23
  • 24. Biochemical effectors of innate immunity • Lysozyme • Chitinase • Phospholipase A2 • Bactericidal permeability-increasing protein (BPI) • Cathelicidins • Serprocedins p • Lactoferrin and calprotectin • Defensins Good for frogs, good for us 24
  • 25. The interferons • Type I – IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-ω and IFN-τ – Production triggered by engagement of certain PRRs – St Strong antiviral activity via i d ti of M A M B and GBP proteins ti i l ti it i induction f Mx-A, Mx-B d t i – Modest immunoregulatory activity • Type II – IFN-γ – Primarily immunoregulatory cytokine involved in adaptive immunity and serving as a principal bridge between innate and adaptive – Distinct from Type I in multiple attributes • Type III – IFN-λ1 (IL-29), IFN-λ2 (IL-28A) and IFN-λ3 (IL-28B) –RRecently d ib d tl described, acceptance not yet universal t t t i l 25
  • 26. Regulation of the early innate immune response • Innate immunity (as well as adaptive immunity) is controlled by the nervous and endocrine systems in a dynamic feedback loop mechanism • Major system is the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPA) axis hypothalamic pituitary gonadal • Early manifestations of inflammation result from neural triggers • HPA interactions are key in development and maintenance of inflammation 26
  • 27. Assessing innate immune function • Historically innate immune function has received far less Historically, attention as a target for toxic insult than adaptive immune function – Innate immunity was perceived as “primitive” and thus less y p p important in long-lasting and specific host defense • Recent work has clearly demonstrated that innate immunity is a key regulator not only of initial host protection, but the development (and perhaps maintenance) of specific immunity • Innate immune function defects (primarily NK cell function) correlate with immune deficits, so we know it’s “important” it s important 27
  • 28. Assessing innate immune function • Increasing understanding of the complexity of this “subsystem” presents enormous challenges and opportunities for understanding both deliberate and unintentional immunomodulation • Interpretation of results perhaps more difficult than we first imagined: – Decreased/altered function generally assumed to be deleterious only until th adaptive response t k over, d l t i l til the d ti took however… – Current recognition of the key regulatory function of the innate response may represent an unexpected diversity of targets – What happens when innate immune function is increased? • Inflammation is a dangerous tool • Global dysregulation of the immune continuum? 28
  • 29. Assessing innate immune function • Functional (cellular) assays are available to measure: – NK cell function – Macrophage activity –G l t Granulocyte activity (very seldom used…damage or ti it ( ld d d dysregulation probably indicative of a more significant toxicity) • Next frontier in immunotoxicology may be understanding the key role o TLRs a d how t e regulation/dysregulation ey o e of s and o their egu at o /dys egu at o affects the entire immune response – Negative regulation of this subsystem increasingly understood to result in conditions such as inappropriate inflammatory response and other immune mediated diseases immune-mediated – Future therapeutic modulation of the immune response via this subsystem will present significant challenges for safety assessment – Adequate assays not currently in place 29
  • 30. Assessing NK cell function • Traditional model has been the radiolabel release (in vitro) assay – Based on short-term destruction of tumor target cells (“missing self”) by homogeneous leukocyte p p ) y g y preparation containing NKg cells – Advantages: • Relatively simple to perform for appropriately equipped laboratories • Q i k read-out Quick d t – Disadvantages: • Requires the use of radioisotopes • Labor and material-intensive Labor- material intensive • Other models are increasingly being used, but are generally variants on this theme using alternative reporter systems ( (enzymatic, flow cytometric, etc.) y y ) 30
  • 31. In vitro assessment of NK cell function Expose Animals Remove Spleen Radiolabeled 51Cr YAC-1 Single-Cell Splenocyte Tumor Cells Preparation * * * * * 4 hr. * Count Co nt Released * * * Radiolabel * 31
  • 32. Macrophage function assays • Not routinely used as part of immunotoxicology screening (Tier I-type) assessments, and rarely used even in mechanistic (Tier II-type) – Very labor-intensive y – Requires finesse – Useful mainly for detailed studies on agents suspected of acting on these cells • Representative assays – Phagocytosis – Microbial/tumor destruction – Respiratory burst – Cytokine production 32
  • 33. Acquired (Adaptive) immunity •SSpecificity - specific i ifi it ifi immune response t i f ti to infectious agent t • Memory – protection from future infection – Specific memory cells remain in circulation – Antigen sequestration – chronic stimulation • Humoral immunity - host response to soluble antigens • Cell mediated immunity (CMI): host response to intracellular antigens • Elements of the front-line defense (primarily macrophages and dendritic cells) and innate immunity (NK cells) continue to operate; there is not a clear line of demarcation separating innate from adaptive 33
  • 34. Comparison of innate and adaptive immunity INNATE ADAPTIVE Targets are recognized by receptors Targets are recognized by receptors generated encoded by the germline by genetic rearrangement Receptors have relatively broad Epitope recognition is highly specific specificity (PAMPs) PAMPs are generally polysaccharides Epitopes are generally highly specific and polynucleotides; limited specificity polypeptides between pathogens Receptors are PAMPs Receptors are T-cell receptor and B- cell receptor/Ig Immediate response Delayed response due to need for clonal expansion No memory Long memory Metazoans Vertebrates 34
  • 35. Transition of innate to adaptive immunity • Recognition of PAMPs induces inflammation through macrophages and endothelial cells • Recognition of PAMPs leads to dendritic cell maturation and increase in expression of MHC II and accessory molecules • Induction of innate immune response triggers release of cytokines that control subsequent immune responses, particularly IL-12 • Cytokines induced in the early stages of innate immunity operate at many subsequent stages of this transition process Far from being a “primitive” mechanism, innate immunity is the key bridge between front-line host defense and the adaptive immune response b t f t li h t d f d th d ti i 35
  • 36. Plasma Cell Antibody Production Maturation In Bone Marrow B Antigen Presentation Pro Pre Pre Immature Mature Stem B-Cell B-I B-II B-Cell B-Cell Limited Cytokine Cell Production Antigen IL-10 Tr1 IL-10 HELP Maturation In Thymus Resistance to Parasites Th2 IL-4 IL-4 αβ CD4+ IL-10 Allergic Disease Damage to any component of T-Cell T-Cell Th0 Resistance to Infection th innate immune apparatus the i t i t Th1 IL-2 Accessory IFN-γ Autoimmune Disease can have potentially γδ Cell T-Cell HELP significant ramifications due Th3 to the pivotal role this system TGF-β has i l ti f th h in regulation of the Tc1 IFN-γ Cytotoxicity overall immune response. CD8+ Switches Tc2 IL-4 Suppressor Function? * NK T response from NK to TC IL-12 Bone Lymphoid Precursor NK Cell Precursor * NK Cell Innate Cytotoxicity Immunoregulation Marrow Stem Cell * Antigen Presentation Immunoregulation Dendritic Cell Phagocytosis Ph t i Myeloid Precursor Monocyte * Macrophage Antigen Processing/ Presentation Inflammation Host Defense Granulocytes Allergy 36
  • 37. Continuum of host defense FRONT-LINE DEFENSE INNATE IMMUNITY ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY •MACROPHAGES •NK CELLS •T-LYMPHOCYTES (CD 4/8) •GRANULOCYTES •NKT CELLS •B-LYMPHOCYTES •DENDRITIC CELLS •DENDRITIC CELLS •APC •NONSPECIFIC HUMORAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IMMUNE-NEURAL-ENDOCRINE (HPA AXIS) CONTROL CYTOKINES AND CHEMOKINES TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS •RECOGNITION •SPECIFICITY •EARLY CONTROL •TRANSITION TO ADAPTIVE •MEMORY •INDUCTION •MATURATION AND REGULATION •RECALL RESPONSE 37
  • 38. Standard model of immunomodulation Standard model makes it difficult to identify detailed targets 38
  • 39. Alternative model of immunomodulation Revised model makes target identification easier 39